The Process of Thinking and Decision-Making - Essay Example

Running Head Thinking and Decision Making Thinking and Decision Making Decision makers must identify a solution. However, they often face conflictingobjectives, whose relative importance must be weighed before the relative adequacy of different possible solutions can be determined. As a result, one must often compare alternative solutions with regard to how well they maximize ones goals, rather than being able to stop once an adequate solution has been found. Decision making can be defined as the process of making choices among competing courses of actions (Sternberg 1999). A "problem" is a task whose solution is not immediately perceived. Problem solving is identifying a course of action that closes the gap between the present situation and a desired future one. That process requires being able to tell whether the gap has been closed, that is, whether the solution that one currently favors is acceptable. Decision-making is influenced by thinking styles and cognitive skills of a person. R. T. Sternberg (1999) in the book Thinking Styles identifies four forms of thinking styles. They are: the monarchic, the hierarchic, the oligarchic and anarchic styles. At the learning level he distinguishes: the global, the local, the internal, the external, the liberal and conservative styles. The global thinking style is characterized by non-linear thought and generalization of information. Usually, they details and analyze the whole process or event paying little attention to parts and elements of the process. In contrast to global thinkers, the local thinking style pays attention to details and parts of the process. The main weakness of this style is lack of generalization and analyses. Following Sternberg (1999) “These two individuals, the psychology major and the government bureaucrat, are extreme examples of the global and local styles, respectively. Although most people have a preference to work at either a more global or a more local level," (Sternberg 1999, p. 64, 65). The liberal style is characterized by innovative approach to problem solving and a constant search for new information. A person thinks "beyond existing rules and procedures and seek to maximize change" (Sternberg 1999, p. 74). In contrast, the conservative style is characterized by strict rules and patterns of behavior, conformity to traditions and norms followed by a thinker. Critics admit that the "normative" theory of decision making is couched in terms of the processes that people should follow in order to have the best chance of reaching their goal. The most widely accepted normative models of optimal decision making were developed by philosophers and economists and then adopted by psychologists for the descriptive study of human decision making. In critical thinking process, the global thinking style supports development of the concepts and understanding of the processes. Thus, “people who tend toward global thinking are not pragmatic, because theyre removed from the world” (Sternberg 1999, p. 84). In many cases, the most advanced problem solver is often the one who suitably restricts context. This person, however, has probably also, after generating additional options, done some editing. By selecting among the options he/she has restricted the larger context that was generated. This ability to edit is often just as important to successful solution as the earlier step of expanding context, as research on brainstorming has demonstrated. Thinking critically, “local people prefer to deal with details, sometimes minute ones, and often ones surrounding concrete issues” (Sternberg 1999, p. 65). There is the relationship of effective interpersonal problem solving to social and emotional adjustment. In one early study advancing this position, Both more aggressive and more inhibited employees are less competent in solving problems and making decisions. Delinquents appear to be particularly deficient in social problem-solving skills, although it is unclear to what extent delinquency is caused by the lack of these skills and to what extent it keeps youths from acquiring them (Sternberg and Zhang 2001). The liberal thinking style inspires creativity and entrepreneurship. “Better mousetrap" may lead to relatively greater reward for the liberal styles” (Sternberg 1999, p. 100). It is important to mention that good decision making can be defined as thinking that leads to choices that are most likely to satisfy the goals that the thinker would have on reflection. Decision-making skills can be improved by formal instruction in the principles and techniques of good decision making. In contrast to liberal thinking style, the conservative style limits critical thinking skills and increases harshness. Conservative people are those “who call for more and harsher discipline, and a return to the `good old ways" (Sternberg 1999, p. 124). To try to understand the reasons for the great difficulties that so many people seem to have in managing their own lives, investigators have turned to the study of social problem-solving skills and their development in adolescents (Sternberg and Zhang 2001; Kirkwood, 1996). The thinking styles have a great impact on decision-making process and effective performance. Similar to other industries, a meat processing industry requires good problem solving skills by which the individual discovers or identifies the most effective means for coping with problematic situations that are encountered in daily living. According to the most general normative model, a person facing a decision should (a) list relevant action alternatives, (b) identify possible consequences of those actions, (c) assess the probability of each consequence occurring (if each action were undertaken), (d) establish the relative importance (value or utility) of each consequence, and (e) integrate these values and probabilities to identify the most attractive course of action, following a defensible decision rule. People who follow these steps are said to behave in a rational way. Most of them follow local and liberal thinking styles. Local thinking is extremely important for production department dealing with technological problems and solutions. For instance, low quality problems can be successfully solved by employees with local thinking who pays attention to details and concrete issues (Sternberg and Zhang 2001). This style of thinking allows the company to save time and find the best possible solution for production facilities. Local thinking style is extremely festive in marketing campaign required unusual solutions and innovative approaches in advertising. Creativity is the main factor for promotion and public relation campaigns. "Thinking people are logical, analytical, and impersonal in their judgments; whereas feeling people are more oriented toward values and emotions" (Sternberg and Zhang 2001, p. 14). In general, the activity of decision making involves cognitive processes, such as information search and evaluation, judgment, and problem solving, as well as responses to a set of motivational forces that determine the manner in which decisions are made (Kirkwood, 1996). Motivational forces that shape decision making activity include such elements as reluctance to recognize that there is an opportunity or threat (and that it is therefore imperative to make a decision); tendencies to show resistance and reactance in the face of unwarranted social pressure to choose a particular alternative; the disruptive and sometimes energizing effects of psychological stress on processing of information relating to choice alternatives; tendencies to use the no-choice or procrastination option; tendencies to become trapped in commitment to an outworn decision and post-decisional tendencies to resolve cognitive dissonance by idealizing chosen alternatives and derogating unchosen ones (Sternberg and Zhang 2001). The study of decision making would be incomplete without recognition that these motivational elements form an integral part of decision-making activity. Most of the middle managers require global and conservative thinking styles. These models prescribe the rules that people should follow when making decisions, given their beliefs and values. Global and conservative thinking styles allow them to (a) identify a set of alternative courses of action, (b) identify appropriate criteria, (c) evaluate alternatives by these criteria, and (d) summarize information about alternatives (Kirkwood, 1996). People who do so effectively (e.g., they have accurate probability estimates, they get good courses of action into their list of possibilities) are said to behave optimally. Thus, if one does not execute these steps optimally, one can be rational without being very effective at getting what one wants (Sternberg and Zhang 2001). In sum, the style of thinking has an influence on the way a person accepts decisions and develops solutions. It is important for employees to think systematically about their goals for a decision, the options they face, and the likely outcomes of each option. They should learn to organize this information in a standard format. This systematic approach encourages employees to take account of all the relevant information as they make a decision. References 1. Kirkwood, C. W. (1996). Strategic Decision Making: Multiobjective Decision Analysis with Spreadsheets. Duxbury Press. 2. Sternberg, R. T. (1999). Thinking Styles. Cambridge University Press; New Ed edition. 3. Sternberg, J. R., Zhang, L. (2001). Perspectives on Thinking, Learning, and Cognitive Styles. Lawrence Erlbaum. Read More