Human Development: Young Adult Through Death - Literature review Example

Human Development: Young Adult through Death Whether pursuing a career in a human services field or merely attempting to provide for the future in an informed manner, the study of human development proves it is more varied and complex than one might at first imagine. By taking a look at the various factors that play a part in the normal course of development, one can begin to understand how early developmental progress or stagnation can have significant consequences on later life. Although it is often perceived that there are few stages of life, such as childhood, adulthood and old age, psychologist Erik Erikson has identified eight distinct stages to the normal life cycle. The first four; which include infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood/elementary and adolescence; have much to do with figuring out the way the world works as well as achieving most of the individual’s physical growth. The second four, however, involve self-identification, figuring out ourselves both internally and externally as we continuously meet and overcome new life challenges. These stages, characterized by several general characteristics in physical, physiological, psychological and social changes that the individual must meet and come to terms with, include Young Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, Late Adulthood and Death and Dying. Young Adulthood, typically characterized as occurring between the ages of 18 and 40, is usually more concerned with social and cognitive development than the physical development that dominated the earlier stages. The developmental tasks of this phase of life as defined by Robert Havighurst take on the form of determining and obtaining an occupation, marriage, having children, managing a home and achieving social success through civic and other roles (Craig & Baucum 2001). The importance placed on the attainment of these goals as well as the degree of attainment required varies greatly based on gender, culture, education and economic level. As can be seen by the types of tasks involved, there is a great deal of personality adjustment, definition and realization that must take place in order for the individual to learn to live with another, raise children together and take an active role in the greater community. According to Erikson, this stage is characterized by the question of intimacy or isolation as the individual determines whether they prefer the opposite sex or the same sex and how they react to this realization and whether they will be able to give and receive love and make long-term commitments to relationships (Craig & Baucum 2001). A failure to successfully navigate this crucial issue, according to Erikson, will leave an unhappy, very lonely adult who is unable to connect with others in any meaningful, significant way. They are either promiscuous in their relationships due to their inability to commit or they are exclusionary in that they completely reject relationships and others who have them (Niolon, n.d.). However, Bingham and Stryker (cited by Woolfolk & McCune-Nicolich 1984) argue that the stages as they are experienced by girls and women are slightly altered from the generally accepted views held by Erikson and others, who primarily studied men. According to their research, the young adult stage for women is characterized instead by the development of strategies to gain self-sufficiency, including learning how to take care of herself and her family and developing a sense of autonomy. The skills identified with this stage for women are similar to those listed by Erikson in earlier stages in his studies on general population, but Woolfolk and McCune-Nicolich (1984) suggest the reasons for this are that women as a group are conditioned from an early age to be more subservient and submissive, giving them a general handicap as they enter into the adult world. Cognitively, Kegan’s Subject-Object Theory illustrates how the mind develops increasing ability to cope with new situations and make meaning out of old ones. “Growth in our order of mind allows us to manage complexity without reactivity to forces that previously exerted powerful pulls on us” (Willis 2005). In other words, our ability to deal with significant changes or life-events changes with our experience level. Middle adulthood, that period of life roughly defined as occurring between the ages of 25 and 60 is typically characterized physically by the beginning of declining abilities, socially by our children as they transition into young adults and psychologically by how long-term relationships with children, parents and spouses begin to change with the fluctuations in self-identity and definition. The age range for this group is not as rigid as the age ranges for earlier stages primarily because people develop at differing rates and have major life experiences at different ages. This is the stage during which individuals first begin to notice some physical decline (Craig & Baucum 2001). It has become a little harder to lose the holiday pounds, old injuries seem to act up when the weather turns and women begin experiencing symptoms of menopause. Motor skills begin to slow, eyesight begins to fade slightly and other minor complaints may arise. Erikson indicates this stage is primarily characterized by the question of generation vs. stagnation. “If you have a strong sense of creativity, success, and of having ‘made a mark’, you develop generativity, and are concerned with the next generation; the virtue is called care, and represents connection to generations to come, and a love given without expectations of a specific return” (Niolon n.d.). The opposite of this is stagnation, when an individual feels little or no connection to others leads to self-absorption and the much-espoused mid-life crisis. However, too much generation can also be bad as it leads to overextension, an individual who is so busy that they have no time for themselves. Interestingly, the mid-life crisis actually seems to only apply to a certain group of men, women dealing instead with the onset of menopause and is not often present in studies of nonprofessional men (Craig & Baucum 2001). Developmental tasks associated with middle age include achieving a certain social and civic responsibility, maintaining a satisfying career, developing appropriate leisure activities and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age as well as the social changes accompanied by children reaching adulthood and adjusting to aging parents. How an individual relates to the world changes dramatically during this period of life, often representing a complete shift in roles. Now, people find themselves moving into a more companionable role with their adult children and beginning to relate to aging parents in a more parental mode. The influence of grandchildren, and how the individual reacts to the idea of becoming a grandparent, presents an irreversible turning stone to that person’s development. For most people, the entrance into the state of grandparent represents a shift into the realm of the older adult. Physically, there are several stages an individual can look forward to as they age. This stage begins roughly around the age of 60, depending upon how well a person kept themselves healthy and stress free throughout their life. “With improved diet, physical fitness, public health, and health care, more adults are reaching age 65 in better physical and mental health than in the past. Trends show that the prevalence of chronic disability among older people is declining … While some disability is the result of more general losses of physiological functions with aging (i.e. normal aging), extreme disability in older persons, including that which stems from mental disorders, is not an inevitable part of aging” (Boeree 1999). Although it is generally believed that aging is synonymous with mental decline, studies have shown that older adults are often characterized by stable intellectual functioning, a great capacity for change and demonstrate a productive engagement with life (Boeree 1999). Erikson characterizes the older adult as an individual who must resolve the ego integrity vs. despair crisis in which the individual must either accept their failures and successes in life to develop a sense of wisdom or those who cannot accept their disappointments and develop a sense of despair and dread regarding their coming death (Niolon n.d.). However, increased health and longevity into the later years has prompted Cohen to propose two human potential phases for those individuals who reach this stage of life with adequate resources for their support. These are labeled Retirement/Liberation and Summing Up/Swan Song. “Cohen points out, however, that most people fare well in retirement. They have the opportunity to explore new interests, activities, and relationships due to retirement’s liberating qualities. … In short, the liberating experience of having more time and an increased sense of freedom can be the springboard for creativity in later life. Creative achievement by older people can change the course of an individual, family, community or culture” (Boeree 1999). A final aspect of the study of human development as it relates to the adult much include a discussion regarding the different approaches an individual might take as it relates to Death and dying. Various cultures approach the idea of death with profoundly different perspectives. Religion often plays a large role in how one approaches the topic, whether the individual believes there is life after death, what form that life will take (i.e. – life at the right hand of the Father or reincarnation on earth) or if the individual believes death is simply the end of existence. The approach one takes to death will determine whether death is feared or embraced, and this cannot be reasonably predicted by a belief in an afterlife. Some who believe in an afterlife may yet fear death because of a perceived punishment for deeds committed in life. Others who feel death is the end of existence may well welcome the thought. While Western society almost goes out of its way to ignore or forget about death as is evidenced by its obsession with youth and the appearance of youth, it is nevertheless fascinated by the concept of death and what might follow after it as is shown in the dominant religions and poetry (Craig & Baucum 2001). There is a similar contrast in the way in which young people view death as compared to how older people view death. While young people may consider the idea of death once in a while, primarily as something that happens to other people or that is too far away to worry about, older people tend to reflect upon it a great deal more, either fearing it or looking forward to it depending upon how they traversed previous life stages. In dying, there are actually two processes at work: the physical process of the body shutting down its various functions and the mental/psychological/spiritual process of letting go. “The spirit of the dying person begins the final process of release from the body, its immediate environment, and all attachments. This release also tends to follow its own priorities, which may include the resolution of whatever is unfinished of a practical nature and reception of permission to ‘let go’ from family members … These two processes need to happen in a way appropriate and unique to the values, beliefs and lifestyle of the dying person” (“Preparing” 1996). Because of the various views on death, there have been significant difficulties in coming to terms with ideas such as human euthanasia and suicide. Although the spirit may be ready and willing to go, the body may not always be so willing to accommodate. Arguments for euthanasia center around the rights of the patient to stop suffering and needless pain in situations for which there can be no relief as well as to allow individuals who are incapable of making this decision on their own, again with no hope of recovery, from becoming a significant drain upon the family in terms of trying to provide medical coverage. Arguments against it are typically centered upon the religious question of whether one can take a life without committing a sin and around the legal issues regarding the definition of murder. From the time an individual leaves the home of his or her parents to the time of his or her subsequent death, there is still much growing and developing to be done. As they learn to work with others to the point of being able to exchange love, the young adult becomes more aware of how their actions and beliefs affect others and becomes more conscious in their behavior. As they acquire additional life experiences, such as marriage, having and raising children, they also acquire certain coping skills that will help them better deal with additional situations in their future, such as the loss of a loved one, the changing relationships they will have with their growing children or aging parents and the changes in themselves as they also age and begin to decline. The older adult is increasingly seen as an individual who is gaining a new freedom and ability to explore interests that had been relegated to the back burner while the individual got on with the business of life. As more and more people work to take care of their health and well-being throughout their life cycle, they are living longer and retaining their health into the later years, enabling to experience this exhilarating development. However, their response to the idea of death will still vary depending upon their ability to accept the successes and failures of their own life, their acceptance within the greater society and their cultural, religious and personal views regarding what happens after death and what their role will be within it. Bibliography Boeree, C. (1999). Mental Health: A Report from the Surgeon General. US Public Health Service. Craig, G & Baucum, D. (2001). Human Development (9th Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Niolon, R. (n.d.). “Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development.” Resources for Students and Professionals [online]. PsychPages. Retrieved March 16, 2006 from < http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/person/erikson.html> “Preparing for Approaching Death.” (1996). North Central Florida Hospice [online]. Retrieved March 16, 2006 from Willis, S. (2005). “Academic Preview: Spotlight on LIOS Faculty Research Project.” Leadership Institute of Seattle. Seattle, WA: Bastyr University. Woolfolk & McCune-Nicolich. (1984). Educational Psychology for Teachers (2nd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Read More