Sociology of Health, Illness, and Well-being - Essay Example

Sociology of Health, Illness, and Well-being Introduction Issues surrounding individual well-being in terms of optimal health continue to raise serious concerns amongst scholars, medical researchers, governments, and other stakeholders alike. The emergence of cultural materialism in the wake of modern capitalism in the 20th century has caused a paradigm shift in individual perceptions of ideas of good health and psychological well-being. According to Karl Marx, the inequality in access to resources, as witnessed in the division of labour in the modern market economy, causes alienation of the self from others and from the environment. Emile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud’s sociological theories also help shed light on health issues. On one hand, sociological perspectives on health attempt to make sense of illness by tackling the projected causes of such illness. On the other hand, they help proffer a better understanding of the social processes of health and mental wellbeing (Callahan 2014, 34) Sociological Perspectives: Marx, Durkheim, and Freud’s Views In Karl Marx’s sociological perspectives, materialism emerges as a key concept. Marx discusses the issue of the material culture of modern capitalism at length as part of his major theoretical claims. The social philosopher is a renowned critic of modern division of labour and the emergent socio-economic disparities of capitalism industrialization as witnessed in the free market enterprise economy. In his discourses on the same, Marx observes a vast disparity in the balance of power between the elite class of economic bourgeoises on one hand and the proletariats comprising mainly the low income earners and poor folks (Jacobsen 2008, 67). In his World Systems Theory, Immanuel Wallenstein expounded Marx’s socialist ideology by explaining the sharp imbalance of power between consumer groups. Wallenstein reinforces Marx’s claim that the emerging material world is characterized by division of labour with a segment of a minority elite consumer group with immense purchasing power and a majority of low-income earners with dismal purchasing power. The minority elite own capital and control the market while the majority proletariat group offers labour and raw materials at a controlled price. Marx’s social philosophy centers on three key ideas: material conditions, alienation, and dialectical materialism. As currently observed, cultural materialism is at the core of modern capitalism. Materialism has become an integral part of modern consumerism. Social psychologists concur that cultural materialism has become synonymous with modern consumerism. Lifestyle choices, as reflected in consumption, have become a major health concern in recent times. Numerous health concerns have contributed to the rapid spread of terminal health illnesses such as cancer, diabetes, and other modern health concerns (Jacobsen 2008, 67). Cultural materialism, as Marx argues, is a leading cause of illness. As witnessed in a series of scholarly discourses, Karl Marx never quite discussed health and illness in unequivocal terms; he focused more on shedding light on the progressing conditions as observed in the cultural materialism of modern capitalism. From his major conjectures, health experts continue to draw reference to address issues of health, illness, and death. Marx’s contribution has become vital in academic inquiry and medical research on issues relating to health, illness, and death. Marx envisioned a dialectical interplay between various social groups in a capitalist health care system. In his analysis, there exist structural inequalities in terms of access to primary care. This gap exists purely in terms of material well-being; low-income earners have difficulties accessing the same quality of care available for high-income earners (Callahan 2014, 54). As the owners of capital, the bourgeoisies are able to access quality care. Marx explains that modern capitalism ‘alienates’ the individual self from others and from the environment. Later Marxists scholars suggested that the concept ‘alienation’ is important in the study of modern existence, specifically in terms of mental health. The underlying sociological health perspective is that low-income earners who only have skill and labour to offer to earn a wage are usually more likely to become alienated in terms of the meaning of their existence. Alienation emerges from social perceptions of good life and healthy living. Such views differ among various consumer groups. For instance, the low earners may dismiss the importance of optimal health in light of rising costs of primary health services. This attitude clouds individual judgement regarding vital health issues. Alienation also brings about consumer ignorance on issues such a dietary combination and the need for disease mitigation and prevention (Jacobsen 2008, 67). As discussed in Emile Durkheim’s sociological perspectives on health, social capital emerges as the key to explaining the emergence of health discrepancies among various social groups. Durkheim lays emphasis on neo-liberal individualism as the leading determinant of social happiness and state of mind. In his memoirs, Durkheim claims that the nature of people’s social networks and relationship are crucial determinants of individual health (Callahan 2014, 34). In his discourses, Durkheim articulates two distinct forms of division of labour. To begin with, Durkheim talks about the ‘forced division of labour.’ The working class of proletariat do not desire this particular social tag; they often find themselves entangled in a material culture of modern capitalism through force and constraint. The low-income earners have to means to suit in any other consumer group. The other abnormal form, anomie, refers to perpetual suffering and constraint caused by inequitable access to opportunities and basic welfare amenities. Durkheim argues that individualism is the highest moral value of the modern capitalist society (White et al., 2013). The sociologist talks about the role of the state in managing people’s affairs. The key role of any given nation state is to protect its civilians. The modern state ought to ensure that all civilians have reasonable access to primary health care, for instance. Good health is an individual entitlement and not a privilege. The state ought to enable citizens through health empowerment. In spite of their profound differences relating to their sociological perspectives, Marx and Durkheim shared the same concerns about the emergence of modern capitalism as occasioned in the present consumerism trends. Tracing back to the Industrial Revolution in Europe, the evolution of the modern market economy has caused significant changes in consumer patterns and lifestyle choices. As witnessed in the current eating habits, the population is growing ignorant of the right dietary combination. Some cannot tell protein and vitamins apart or even the essential role of each type of food for good health. Civic health education would help reiterate the essence of quality health care, especially for vulnerable demographics such as the elderly sick and the disabled (Callahan 2014, 38). In his Sigmund Freud’s sociological perspective, the issue of health relates to human developmental psychology in the various transitional phases of development. Human vulnerability to illness may vary significantly in different developmental milestones. For instance, children are susceptible to certain illnesses as opposed to young adults or the elder demographic. Health resilience depends on the ability of the body to cope with various conditions. In his breakthrough journal, An Outline of Psychoanalysis, Freud (1949) coins the term psychoanalysis. He also discusses his major psychical apparatus – ego, id, and superego. The id is the subconscious self – instincts and genes. Ego is the conscious self that manages the subconscious and provides the link between id and the external world (Singer & Erickson, 2013, 87). The superego is responsible for the socialization process aided by various agents such as peers, family, the media, and the society. (White et al, 2013) The ultimate step towards building health awareness is by focusing on the family. Availing quality care for the family requires a comprehensive health plan noting that every individual member bears varying health concerns. In developmental psychology, we learn that old age is a very fragile period; patients are senile, weak, and fragile. In their old age, patients are inexplicably vulnerable to terminal illnesses such as cancer, brain tumor, and leukemia along with chronic conditions like diabetes, heart disease, and arthritis. Sources retrieved from the annals of the World Health Organization indicate that old people are generally prone to disabilities arising from injuries such as falls (Singer & Erickson, 2013, 87). Health Intervention and the Need for Optimal Health In liaison with the World Health Organization along with other philanthropic health organizations, governments ought to introduce community-based health, prevention, and wellness programs specifically to deal with the elderly and disabled people. The basis of this liaison is to empower self-efficacy by urging the culprits to adopt healthy living. Community-based health care and social welfare programs specialize in the application of evidence-based self-management systems. This becomes practical in traditional non-clinical settings such as area agencies on aging. Proper planning allows participants to modify prevailing self-management health behaviors through group interaction and reinforcement (Singer & Erickson, 2013, 87). The Ottawa Charter outlined three plausible approaches to health promotion: advocate, enable, and mediate. Through advocacy, health promotion seeks to get political, social, economic, behavioral, environmental, cultural, and personal factors in line with the push for the ‘health for all’ goal. In the modern lifestyle consumer economy, individuals happen to be ignorant of the need for optimal health. The goal of health promotion is to enable people make the right decisions. This can be achieved through proper health awareness and civic education on the essence of good health. The Ottawa Charter also noted that equal health cannot be achieved by focusing solely on the health sector; it takes collaborative efforts from various sectors i.e. government, international regimes, mainstream media, and the civil society. The role of health promotion here is to mediate such efforts and align coordination efforts towards one common goal: health for all (Callahan 2014, 33). Health awareness ensures people understand the significance of building positive attitudes regarding the importance of optimal health. Proper health education helps patients learn and adopt certain healthy habits, which in turn reduces indulgences in unhealthy habits such as alcohol and drug abuse. With the biggest challenge to good health being ignorance, public awareness on health is the most fundamental step for every federal government and nation-state. People need to know what they are risking when indulging in certain eating habits. They need to know the importance of healthy eating habits i.e. consuming a balanced diet, which reduces the risk of exposure to lifestyle diseases. With this insight, patients are more likely to make healthy choices (Pear, 2012 p 12). As stipulated under specific clauses in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, optimal health is a universal human right; every human being deserves equal access to health services. In the real world, access to health care services often meets particular challenges given the medical expenses for terminal diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart conditions. Experts explain that the pervasive consumption of modern foods such as fast foods, chemical substances, and alcohol leaves the consumer susceptible to terminal diseases. According to an article published in the WHO Annual Journal 2014, cancer, diabetes, hypertension, and heart diseases are lifestyle diseases triggered by ignorance of the right dietary combination. Amid this particular concern, health experts have called for civil health education in a series of awareness campaigns to mitigate the loss caused by terminal lifestyle diseases, especially as they relate to the elderly sick (Singer & Erickson, 2013, 82). Conclusion Health care is a global concern. Preserving human dignity is the least anyone could ask for in this life. Equal access to primary care is an inalienable right and not a privilege. Likewise, health education should be a priority to ensure people are aware of the right dietary combination. This would help mitigate the impact of lifestyle diseases and terminal illnesses such as cancer and diabetes. In the real world, access to health care services often meets particular challenges given the medical expenses for terminal diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart conditions. The goal of health promotion is to mediate efforts from various sectors to push for equitable access to primary care and other health services. Bibliography Callahan, D. 2014, "The WHO definition of 'Health’ “The Hastings Center Studies 1 (3): 77–87 Feldman, M. (2011). Understanding Health Care Reform: Bridging the Gap Between Myth and Reality. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Jacobsen, K. 2008, Introduction to Global Health. Jones & Bartlett Learning, New York. Levine, R. 2007, Case Studies in Global Health: Millions Saved. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, New York. Singer, M. & Erickson, P. 2013, Global Health: An Anthropological Perspective, Waveland Press, London. Skolnik, R. 2011, Global Health 101 Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, MA. Turnock, B 2009, Public Health: What It Is and How It Works (4th ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, MA. White, F., Stallone, L. & Last, J. 2013, Global Public Health: Ecological Foundations, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Read More