Definition of Moral Reasoning - Essay Example

Human Services Culture and Psychology Discussion 6 and 7 al Affiliation Discussion Wk# 6 Moral Reasoning Definition of Moral Reasoning Human beings are expected to use moral concepts and reasoning to guide their actions and judgment, from either a personal or collective perspective (Jensen, 2008). Moral reasoning is also directed towards choosing what to do including forming judgments regarding is required to be moral, and distinguish right from wrong or vicious from virtuous. Comparison of two similarities and two differences in moral reasoning across Confucian and Taoism Cultures Two Similarities In China, both Taoism and Confucianism cultures offer ethical guidance to acceptable conduct of officials and individuals (Bedford & Hwang, 2003). In addition, both of them seek to make the world a better place to live including how to relate to non-human world. Two differences However, Confucians believe in virtue ethics that is, the Dao, ren, and the Junzi unlike the Taoists whose ethical perspective is borrowed from soft style of action and social primitivism. In addition, Confucianism’s centrality is in Li or ritual and the doctrines of love with distinctions unlike Taoists ethical perspective from Zhuangzi. Two Culture-Specific Factors That Might Lead To These Differences and Explain How Taoism’s soft style of social primitivism and action shifts attention from human social world to cosmos. Here, the human world is considered tiny and insignificant nature while the responsiveness to the larger world is emphasized for its role in shaping and enfolding the human social world. However, Confucians focus on how one should with more emphasis on ideal characters and the constituting virtues or traits (Bedford & Hwang, 2003). Conversely, Zhuangzi’s ethical perspective introduces the element of sceptical questioning and the fact that human life can be attuned to many other things unlike natural goodness that is more emphasized by Confucians’ through centrality of Li in crafting human character, thus self-cultivation. References Barnhart, M. (2002). Varieties of ethical reflection : new directions for ethics in a global context. Lanham: Lexington Books. Bedford, O., & Hwang, K.-K. (2003). Guilt and Shame in Chinese Culture: A Cross-Cultural Framework from the Perspective of Morality and Identity. Journal for The Theory of Social Behaviour, 33(2), 127-144. Jensen, L. A. (2008). Through Two Lenses: A Cultural-Developmental Approach to Moral Psychology. Developmental Review, 28, 289-315 Discussion #7: Gender Socialization Description of Two Socialization Agents This section compares teachers and parents as socialization agents in American and Chinese cultures. Teachers are adults assisting children during learning, while parents raise the children outside school settings. Influence of Parents and Teachers on development across Chinese and Americans In the American culture, like the Chinese culture, gender socialization plays a crucial role in determining the respect used to treat girls and boys (Sunar, 2002). In America, teachers’ differential responses and attention towards preschoolers and schooling emphasize behavior differences in gender especially through their naming and dressing boys and girls distinctively since their first preschool day. In addition, preschoolers in America are exposed to gender values whereby boys are viewed as strong and aggressive while girls are viewed as beautiful and soft. Conversely, Chinese teachers promote gender socialization through the use of standard guidelines such as Liji that recommend how to raise boys and girls through the ages. Again, Jiao Te Sheng teaches men and women how to live harmoniously with men being leaders and breadwinners and women called to follow and obey. Furthermore, Chinese parents emphasize male-centered society with male children being regarded more than girls. How Parents and Teachers Have Influenced My Gender Roles After living with my parents for today, I uphold my duties as a female such as I love cooking as is the case with women from my culture. I also value my appearance and always seek to have an outstanding appearance that will represent who I really am, a woman. Conversely, my teachers played the crucial role of molding me through their emphasis on all roles never being assigned to male or female students. For instance, everyone in the class would be expected to work hard in class and any success was recognized through awards for either genders equally. Through this experience, I have learnt to be aware of gender-bias and gender differences and always seek to address them. How My Gender Roles Would Have Been Impacted If I Was Raise in A Different Culture If I was raised in China among the Confucians, this would enhance my roles as a women such as self-discipline, household management, chastity, etiquette, humility, and relationships with in-laws. However, my love for children would not allow me to lower my self-esteem for having a girl-child yet the society values male children (Echavarri & Ezcurra, 2010). However, like Latino Americans youths (Afable-Munsuz & Brindis, 2006), Chinese gender roles, sexual and reproductive norms are changing. References Afable-Munsuz, A., & Brindis, C. D. (2006). Acculturation and the Sexual and Reproductive Health Of Latino Youth in the United States: A Literature Review. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 38(4), 208-219. Echavarri, R., & Ezcurra, R. (2010). Education and Gender Bias in the Sex Ratio at Birth: Evidence from India. Demography, 47(1), 249-268. Sunar, D. (2002). The Psychology of Morality. In L. S. W, & S. D, Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. Assignment Application: Sexual Behavior Two Cultures of Interest For this discussion on sexual behavior, the culture that interests me is African-American culture that I will compared to the Chinese culture. Compare the Similarities and Differences of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors in Each Culture Amongst African-Americans, sexual attitudes are highly divergent and evident amongst adolescence boys and girls. The divergence is mostly on issues regarding the psychosocial domains. The deviation intensifies and at some point, the gap is too wide particularly in sex-roles, school-achievement, and masculinity (Crouter, Manke, & McHale, 2000). During this time, the main indicators of such deviations are anxiety and self-esteem. However, the increased deviations in African-American adolescents in psychosocial functioning is increased pressure to conform to societal defined feminine and masculine sex roles. For instance, African-Americans are well known for their conformity to traditions that treat boys differently from girls with boys being more independent while girls are more compliant (Allana, Asad, & Sherali, 2010). According to Allana, Asad, & Sherali (2010), gender’ culturally based and socially constructed roles of men and women enable humans to understand how unequal power relations operate and are shaped between them. Amongst, African-Americans, Hip-Hop culture upholds women sexuality and influences young women’s sexual identity, sense of self, and enactment and timing sexual practices. This culture is socially constructed and is characterized by cultural narratives that are constantly internalized, resisted, and reproduced. The promotion and distribution of hip hop culture is mostly through schools, neighborhoods. Media, nightclubs, institutional racism and sexism, parental influences, and gender and racial socialization among others. Family influences is the greatest with maternal influence determining how adolescents negotiate sexual images through direct communication of their family beliefs regarding sexually written messages available within mainstream hip hop culture. In addition, maternal enactment and modelling of sexual images influences how adolescents perceive the hip hop culture. Another major socialization agent is peer influence (Afable-Munsuz & Brindis, 2006). Among African American adolescent women, presentation of self -sexual imagery is a highly regarded element of Hip-Hop culture, and African American female adolescents use social media such as MySpace to portray their images. Additionally, it is renowned that amongst African Americans, adolescents report higher incidents of sexual intercourse especially in the recent years, and this increases the risk of young engaging in unprotected sex (Marston & King, 2006). Consequently they are more prone to sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. Compared to African American culture, Chinese Confucians culture is sex-positive and constitutes of quotes that most Chinese are fond of using to show their support of sexual rights and desires (Juan & Matsumura, 1991). Chinese people, like Confucius, appreciate the integral role of sexual impulse to human nature, and acknowledge that men and women’s sexual relations is the greatest human desire. However, despite Confucianism’ ethical-moral system governing all society relationships, vertical structures, and hierarchies, the constantly changing socio-cultural environment also influences the relationships between sexual behavior and Confucian values, thus impacting on intimate and sexual conduct of young adults and adolescents (Cohen, Celestine-Michener, Holmes, Merseth, & Ralph, 2007). Like the African-Americans, young Confucians drift from suppressing passionate love and marrying their parents chosen partners to preference for love matches, higher women equality, and sexual permissiveness. Describe the Cultural Factors That Influence Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors Amongst the Chinese people, Confucianism is associated with horrific oppression of women and limitation concerning women roles and subjugation of women to men. Confucians also subjected women to obeying their brothers, husband, and fathers, since women were often regarded as incapable of attaining full status of human beings like men did, thus dismissing women as people (Kennair, 2009). Consequently, women are viewed and perceived as submissive, housebound, and second-class because of their lack of talent and the fact that they could be bought and sold even by their husbands. As a result, today most rural areas in China perceive the birth of a girl as a misfortune because their only ability was in housekeeping, chastity, and fertility. Consequently, men could easily divorce women who could not give birth to a son as this was perceived terminating the continuity of their family name (Kennair, 2009). Like the Confucian adolescents, African American adolescents’ sexual attitudes have inclined towards premarital sex. Some contributing factors include gender stereotypes; existence of penalties and rewards for sex from the society; Condoms’ stigmatization; and assessment of sexual partners (Marston & King, 2006). In addition, African American adolescents are also influenced by social expectations that prevent communication regarding sex as most women do not wish to acknowledge or mention sexual desires especially in early relationships. As a result, they often avoid speaking to their partners or just deliberately use ambiguity and miscommunication like avoiding saying ‘yes’ to show their acceptance of sex and it becomes hard for one to distinguish genuine refusal. Gender stereotypes significantly influence the determination of social conduct and expectations such that women virginity during marriage attains high value socially while males value virginal penetration (Marston & King, 2006). The deeper the penetration, the more one proves their masculinity and transition into manhood. In addition, for the women desired desiring sex, the brand name is ‘cheap’ or ‘loose’ yet this is not the case with men who seek physical pleasure (Marston & King, 2006). Furthermore, through society rewards or penalties for sex, men with multiple partners normally receives high social status while high status for women is only possible when chastity or stable relationships with only one man is present (Marston & King, 2006). However, when women who become pregnant outside marriage are stigmatized. Impact of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors as Perceived and Displayed Within Each Culture Amongst African-American women, there is higher prevalence rates of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Unfortunately, most of these women are unaware of their men having sex with other men and women thus engaging in a risky behavior that puts them at high HIV prevalence (Cohen, Celestine-Michener, Holmes, Merseth, & Ralph, 2007). In most cases, these women do not know of the high-risk status of their husband’s behavior, thus use none or inconsistent protection such as condom. However, from a womanist perspective, African American women have a history and culture of pursuing their own empowerment and maintain strong interpersonal and communal relations with children, men, and women. References Allana, A., Asad, N., & Sherali, Y. (2010). Gender in Academic Settings: Role of Teachers. International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, 1(4), 343-348. Cohen, C., Celestine-Michener, J., Holmes, C., Merseth, J., & Ralph, L. (2007). The Attitudes and Behavior of Young Black Americans: Research Summary. Chicago: Black Youth Project. Crouter, A., Manke, B., & McHale, S. (2000). The Family Context of Gender Intensification in Early Adolescence. Child Development, 66, 317-329. Juan, F.-F., & Matsumura, M. (1991). Sex in China: Studies in Sexology in Chinese Culture. New York: Plenum Press. Kennair, L. E. (2009). Sex Differences in Sexual Desires and Attitudes in Norwegian Samples. Interpersona, 3(1), 1-32. Marston, C., & King, E. (2006). Factors That Shape Young People’S Sexual Behaviour: Asystematic Review. Lancet, 368, 1581-1586. Read More