Impact of Psychoactive Drugs - Term Paper Example

Opium Introduction Psychoactive drugs refer to substances and drugs, which affect an individual’s mental by altering the nervous and brain system ultimately leading to intoxication. An example of such a substance is Opium. Opium, as a narcotic substance is sourced from opium poppy (Papayer Somniferum) juice. The narcotic substance contains active substances like alkaloid and morphine, ingredients that are processed chemically to generate heroin. Over the years, opium has been frequently harvested for legal medicinal purposes and illegal trade. History of Opium Utilization of opium dates back to centuries ago in lower Mesopotamia where it was cultivated in 3400 B.C. The cultivation and utilization of opium poppies was mainly for anesthetic, food and ritual purposes since the New Stone Epoch. The ancient times was characterized by widespread use of the drug in various empires including Assyrian, Sumerian, Indian, Roman, Arab, Persian, Greek and Minoan. In these times, opium was the most effective form of pain relief, and was essential in surgical procedures. In ancient medical texts including the writings Ebers Payrus, Avicenna and of Dioscorides Galen, opium is mentioned severally, indicating its utilization in ancient civilizations (Derks 78). The application of the unprocessed drug continued to the days of the American Civil War. It was not until the 15th Century that recreational utilization of the drug began to take prominence in China; however, its utilization was limited by the price and rarity of the drug. Its use as a recreational substance led to the emergence of the opium trade and by the 17th Century, the trade had become more regular. After its addiction characteristic was realized, the Chinese government limited its use in 1729 as users mixed opium with tobacco. However, the ban led to widespread use for up to two centuries. The trade of Opium was buoyed by the British, who encouraged its use in China, which ultimately led to the First Opium War between 1839 to1842, which the British emerged victors (Derks 78). After the war, widespread use of the drug increased with the domestic production of opium in China and hence 25 percent of the population of males used opium on a regular basis. Nevertheless, the use of opium as a recreational drug in other countries was rare until the wake of the 19th Century. However, many countries propelled into action to limit its use due to the migration of Chinese citizens into various countries who opened up opium dens in places like California and Francisco. Nonetheless, its medicinal value gained prominence with purified heroin and morphine essential for patent medicine and injection. Currently, opium has been illegalized in many countries as a recreational drug, but it continues to be harvested illegally even though the volume of production is much less that in the past centuries. Category Generally, drugs are classified into a variety of categories depending on the drug’s chemical elements as well as their effects on the consumer. Opium includes alkaloids components such as cocaine, codeines, morphine and papaverine. Opium falls under the Opiate category and its examples are morphine and heroin. These substances relieve pain in the user by producing a sense of happiness as well as euphoria. Ultimately, he /she experiences appetite loss, low levels of attention and drowsiness. Individuals in need of euphoria induce opium in various ways including smoking, drinking, sniffing or through injection. Due to its adverse effects, it is an addictive substance. Traditionally, the substance was utilized as a patent drug essential to restore health, quiet babies as well as calming nerves. Currently, it is characterized as a narcotic (opiate) and has medicinal value as a painkiller (Derks 80). Chemical Name Opium is harvested from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). It is referred to as Lachryma Papaveris. Lachryma Papaveris, the dried latex, incorporates contents including codeine, morphine (alkaloid) that is processed to generate heroin, and papaverine, noscapine and thebaine, which are non –narcotic alkaloids. Pharmacology of Opiates and Their Derivatives Opium is characterized as a narcotic analgesic, and it is harvested from opium poppy. Its derivatives include morphine and heroin among others. Over the years, opium has been used for pain relievers due to its narcotic properties. Even though the other derivatives opium contributes to its narcotic nature, morphine is the most active of the alkaloids of the powdered opium comprising of 10-16% of the total alkaloids. The opium is characterized by 24 differing alkaloids that originate from two distinctive categories including benzylsoquinolines and phenathrones (Pasternak 264).   Generally, opiates connect to and trigger the u-opiod receptors in the intestines, stomach and the central nervous system. The changes in the receptors are a result of the mechanism and are determined by the prevalent derivative. During drug utilization, the brain develops new “pseudo” receptors needed to combine with the drug instead of the natural endorphins, which results in a euphoric state that is usually beyond or above the normal state. This is because more endorphins have been introduced to the system by the opiate and thus when the drug is flushed out of the body the nervous system is characterized by additional “pseudo “receptors and less natural ones. This elaborates why individuals feel worse after the drug wears off, leading to drug dependence. The drug has been in usage for numerous centuries across the globe as a pain reliever and thus many individuals have utilized it as a recreational drug. The Macedonians utilized the drug for its medicinal drugs. Laudenum, an opiate derivative, was a popular cure in the 19C. Opiates derivatives like morphine, Demerol and codeine are still in use as painkillers. However, apart from its medicinal value the drugs are addictive if used for recreational purposes and can result in physical effects including dizziness, sedation, lightheadedness, vomiting and nausea. Consequently, opiates can result in constipation as it reduces the intestinal muscles activity (Pasternak 264). Mechanism of Action and Indication Opiates have been utilized for decades in pain management, as they are powerful analgesic actors. The drug’s receptors presynaptically adjust NTs release including acetylcholine. Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine and substance p. there are three opiod receptors that are distributed in the brain including δ-delta, κ-kappa and μ-mu. Studies have indicated that the genes that encode each of the receptors are a G protein receptor member (Starkey 41). Consequently, there are other three Endogenous Opioid Peptides recognized in the central nervous system and they include dynorphins, enkephalins and endorphins. These peptides are generated from a large protein antecedent by the proenkephalin gene, prodynorphin gene and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) gene. The nociceptives input can bemodulated by the opioid peptide in two distinctive ways. First, by prohibiting the release neurotransmitters by Ca2+ influx inhibition as well as unlock potassium channels, which limits spike activity. The peptides act on diverse spinal and brain receptors while the opioid receptors are located in the secondary nervous and central system. Proponents argue that it is evident that the receptors have varying functions in dissimilar structures and this fact demonstrates the negative effects following opiate treatments. Generally, administered opiates at analgesic doses modulate the supraspinal and spinal mechanism via the three opioids receptors and thus modulate the user’s pain (Starkey 41). Types of Action of receptors Receptor Action mu(µ1) Supraspinal and Spinal analgesia delta(δ) Spinal analgesia Kappa (κ) Supraspinal analgesia and Spinal Benefits and disadvantages of opiates The use of opiates for its medicinal value has been very essential in relieving pain. However, the drug has its advantages and disadvantages. Currently, it is evident according to various scholars that there is no other drug which is more clinical efficient than opiates and its derivatives. With the components like heroin and morphine, opiates are a very addictive and have other several health effects. As the drug triggers pain information at the nervous and spinal sites, and thus relieve an individual’s pain temporarily, the drug provokes the opioids effects including maltroxone and naloxone among others. Numerous studies have shown that the use of opiate may result in medical illnesses, drug dependency and mental illnesses. Once an individual starts to abuse the drug, their body will heavily rely on the substance and thus lead to addiction (Pasternak 265). Work Cited Derks, Hans. History of the Opium Problem: The Assault on the East, Ca. 1600-1950. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Print. Pasternak, Gavril W. The Opiate Receptors. New York: Humana Press, 2010. Print. Starkey, Chad. Therapeutic Modalities. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2013. Internet resource. Read More