History and development of the humanistic school of psychological thought - Essay Example

Running head: HUMANISTIC SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY History and Development of the Humanistic School of Psychological Thought. Greg Abstract. Psychology has various schools of thought, each with its’ own unique approach. After the first two dominant schools of Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis, Humanism as a school of psychological thought and ‘Third Force’ emerged in the 1950s. It emphasized human values and considered man to be inherently good. Humanistic Psychology was pioneered by Abraham Maslow who postulated the Hierarchy of Needs and Carl Rogers who introduced Client-centered Therapy. Other Third Force Theorists included Charlotte Buhler, Victor Frankl and Rollo May among others. Humanistic Psychology made many contributions to psychological thought and to society in the fields of therapy, education and basic understanding of human nature. History and Development of the Humanistic School of Psychological Thought. Psychology, being the study of the mind, is an incredibly vast field with horizons as expansive as the minds’ capacity for thought. Growing from the roots of Philosophy, Psychology was established as a separate discipline at the close of the nineteenth century. In its’ study of behavior, social interaction and consciousness, various schools of thought emerged, each advocating its’ own particular approach. The first distinct school of thought was Structuralism, followed by Functionalism. Then came the dominant approaches of Behaviorism, Psychoanalysis and Humanism. These are but three in a long list that includes Cognitivism, Environment, Evolution and Existentialism to name a few. Each of these schools moved to the forefront of psychological thought at one time or another, mainly due to the perspective that found acceptance under the social norms and conditions of that particular period of history. However, psychological theory in general borrowed freely from all the schools of thought. It is these individual yet interdependent schools of thought which made Psychology evolve into the eclectic science it is today and contributed to its’ richness and depth. Background. Historical Antecedents. The roots of Humanistic Psychology can be traced to the sixth century B.C. when Thales of Miletus coined the phrase, “Know thyself” as the basis of Greek humanistic philosophy (Wikipedia, 2006). Socrates and Aristotle were followed by the tenets of Christianity and the romantic thinkers of the European Renaissance who emphasized human worth and self-dignity. This led to modern humanist philosophies propounded by a galaxy of eminent twentieth century thinkers like Charles Francis Potter, Julian Huxley, John Dewey, Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann. The movement culminated in the formation of the American Humanistic Association, which included members like Isaac Asimov and Kurt Vonnegut. When we consider that humanism was defined as a way of life that was centered on human concerns which valued human worth and dignity, seeking self-actualization through reason and scientific inquiry (Schafersman, September 24 1995), we can clearly see that Humanistic Psychology grew from the Philosophy of Humanism. As the fledgling discipline of Psychology grew and asserted its’ identity as distinct from Philosophy and Biology, the earliest schools of thought to emerge were Structuralism, proposed by William Wundt and Functionalism championed by William James. However, the first dominant school of thought to gain general acceptance was Behaviorism, exemplified by the work of Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism emphasized the importance of the external environment which acted as the stimulus for all human behavior. Next, from 1895 – 1905, came the school of psychoanalysis, synonymous with Sigmund Freud, which stressed the role of the unconscious mind as the prime motivator of human behavior. Carl Jung, Erik Erikson and others also contributed to the psychoanalytical school of thought. Both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis have contributed their part to the development of Humanistic Psychology. Humanistic Psychology is inspired by psychoanalysis in its’ framework but differs from it in holding that personal freedom supersedes the determinism of the past, our parents and our circumstances. Likewise, Humanistic Psychology differs from Behaviorism in its’ emphasis on the individuals freedom to choose, but concedes that this choice can be determined by the condition of the environment. Early Members. The next milestone on the road to psychological development was the emergence of Existential Psychology, with its’ origins in the philosophical works of Nietzsche and Kierkgaard, Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, which highlighted the individuals’ right to choose and dealt with death and anxiety. The philosophy of existentialism influenced Rollo May, who introduced Existential Psychology to the U.S. As George Boeree (2006) says, “Humanism is the American version of Existentialism.” May contributed to the merging of Existentialism and psychoanalysis into a human centered Existential Psychology. The psychiatrist R.D.Laing was also influenced by existentialism. Again, the acknowledged co-founders of Humanistic Psychology, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, were both influenced by existential thought. The close alignment between Existential Psychology and Humanism can be considered the precursor to the development of Humanistic Psychology. An important offshoot of Existential Psychology was the Gestalt Therapy pioneered by Fritz Perls (1893 – 1970) whose goal is to let people find their authentic selves and create a coherent, whole person, free to make their own choices. Here we find another contributor to the thinking of Humanistic Psychology. The humanistic approach also drew its’ roots from the Phenomenological Philosophy postulated by Edmund Husserl (1859 -1938). Here, the contents of the consciousness which we experience personally as images, memories and feelings must be revealed and acknowledged by us as valid in order to understand ourselves. Humanism is also called the Phenomenological School. Martin Heidegger (1889 -1976) combined Husserls’ phenomenological method with existentialism. Ludwig Binswanger (1881 -1966) merged phenomenology with psychiatry and existentialism and had a direct impact on Humanistic Psychology. Karen Horney (1885 – 1952), along with Alfred Adler founded the neo-Freudian discipline. Her theory of neuroses incorporated compliance, aggression and withdrawal. She pioneered feminine psychiatry. Her contribution to Humanistic Psychology lies in her theory of the self in which she postulated that self-actualization is a persons’ aim and one is free to achieve ones’ full potential. She viewed humans as naturally healthy and growth seeking. The roots of Humanistic Psychology can also be traced to Gordon Allports’ Personality Theory in 1930 – 1940. Kilpatrick (1969) suggests that the current use or the term Humanistic Psychology stems from an article by Hadley Cantrel in1958 called Towards a Humanistic Psychology. All these influences lead to the emergence of Humanistic Psychology in the 1950s. Major Contributors. In opposition to what was considered the overlooking of the human dimension of Psychology by the Behaviorists and the Psychoanalysts, a new school of thought emerged. In 1957 and 1958 , two meetings were held at Detroit, Michigan at the invitation of Abraham Maslow and Karl Moustakas, dedicated to incorporating a more humanistic vision of Psychology, which would include such themes as self, self-actualization, health, creativity, intrinsic nature, being, becoming, individuality and meaning, treating the individual as a holistic being and not as a structural part. This led to the formation of the American Association of Humanistic Psychology in 1961 and the publication of the first issue of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology in the same year. This was followed by the Saybrook, Connecticut conference in 1964, where a string of luminaries such as Gordon Allport, James Bugental, Charlotte Buhler, Abraham Maslow, Rollo May and Carl Rogers firmly established the Humanistic School of Psychological Thought (Association for Humanistic Psychology). Maslow termed Behaviorism ‘the First Force of Psychology,’ Psychoanalysis ‘the Second Force’ and Humanism ‘the Third Force.’ The Third Force can be said to encompass humanism, phenomenology and existentialism. Acknowledging the contributions of the earlier schools, Maslow said, “I interpret this Third Psychology to include the First and Second Psychology. I am Freudian and I am Behaviorist and I am Humanistic” (1973). The Third Force Theorists lent a new dimension to Psychology, both in understanding and practical application. Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) can be called the Father of American Humanism. He was as American psychologist whose major contribution was his ‘Hierarchy of Human Needs,’ which he introduced in his book, ‘Motivation and Personality’ (1954). Maslow classified mans’ basic needs in the form of a pyramid, with physiological needs at the base, followed by security, then love and belonging, then esteem and finally, self-actualization at the apex. When this hierarchy of needs remains unfulfilled, it results in neuroses. Maslow was influenced by Zen Buddhism and Taoism. In addition to pioneering Humanistic Psychology, he also set in motion the idea of Transpersonal Psychology as the Fourth Force, inculcating meditation and higher levels of consciousness. Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) is the co-founder of Humanistic Psychology, along with Maslow. He popularized a humanistic approach that accepted people as basically good of healthy. His self-actualization required submission to the drive every creature has to become “all that it can be” or to realize ones’ full potential (Boeree,1998). He revolutionized the treatment of psychotherapy by introducing Client – centered Therapy, in his book, ‘Counseling and Psychotherapy’ (1942). This involves a person-to-person relationship between the therapist and the client. Important Rogerian concepts were the fundamental motive of actualization, self-concept, conditional and unconditional positive regard, congruence, organismic valuing process and the encounter group. Rogers specified three mandatory requirements for a therapist: congruence (honesty), empathy and respect. Rollo May (1909 – 1994) was basically an existential psychologist who emphasized the tragic aspects of existence, but shaped Humanistic Psychology, reconciling the two schools of thought. He postulated that man has the capacity to use his freedom to shape his own development. May tabulated the stages in development as innocence, rebellion, ordinary and creative. He termed motives as daimons. Roberto Assagioli (1888 -1974) was an Italian psychologist and founder of Transpersonal Psychology or Psychosynthesis, in which the meaning of human life requires understanding the synthesis of all relationships. Gordon Allport (1897 – 1967) was the first psychologist to stress the concept of personality and individuality and postulated the Trait Theory. Medard Boss (1903 – 1991) was a Swiss psychologist who defined health as ‘wholeness’ of the human being which led to an openness in response. He used the phenomenological approach and introduced the ‘Dasein’ concept of dream analysis. R.D. Laing (1927 – 1989) was a Scottish psychiatrist associated with the anti-psychiatry movement. He used existentialism to explain schizophrenia. Charlotte Buhler (1893 – 1974) This German psychiatrists’ specialty was the life-span concept in Developmental Psychology and her studies of the diaries of children and adolescents. She was one of the champions of Humanistic Psychology and advocated the concept of personal fulfillment. Victor Frankl (1905 – 1997) This Viennese doctor was interred in the concentration camps in World War 11. Out of his experience, he formulated the concept of Logotherapy, in which the will to meaning is the root of all motivation. He stressed the importance of the spiritual aspect of human life. Psychotherapy can be effective only when physiology is balanced with spirituality. His major concepts were the conscience and finding a meaning to life through experiential, creative or attitudinal values, in order to reach transcendence (Boeree, 1998). Karl Moustakas, the American psychologist emphasized that relationship is central in effective therapy. His other contributions are heuristic research and phenomenological research methods. He was instrumental in the founding of the American Association of Humanistic Psychology, along with Maslow and Rogers. James Bugental took an existential approach to personality and psychology and incorporated ideas of authenticity, coupled with awareness, choice and responsibility. Therapy was not the act of healing an illness but helping a person confront the self and the world. His five postulates of Humanistic Psychology (1964) are: 1) Human beings cannot be reduced to components 2) Human beings have a uniquely human content 3) Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people. 4) Human beings have choices and responsibilities 5)Human beings are intentional, they seek meaning, value and creativity (Wikipedia, 2006). Discussion. Importance Rogers’ claim that the Third Force was a revolution may not be acceptable as Humanistic Psychology was founded on the older streams of psychological thought such as existentialism and phenomenology. However, it indisputably represented a paradigm shift from the then prevalent, conventional views of Psychology. It shifted the emphasis from the mechanical approach of behavior and the determinism of psychoanalysis to person-centered approach. Humanistic Psychology served a unique purpose in that it served to “bring the human being back into Psychology and the person back into personality” (Boeree,2006). It emphasized that Psychology is about real people. It provided a new set of values to understand human nature and expanded the horizon of psychological thought. It changed the psychological perception of man as naturally flawed or ill, into one of inborn goodness and health. Free will, emotions and the subjective view of experience were all given due importance. The galaxy of stars who formed the Third Force Theorists, all contributed towards Humanistic Psychology and through it, to Psychology and its’ impact on society. Maslows’ Hierarchy of Needs and his concept of a self-actualized person as being reality-centered (honest in outlook), problem-centered (ready to face and solve difficulties), as enjoying qualitative personal relationships, solitude and autonomy, being non-conformist in the best sense, with a non-hostile sense of humor, accepting of others and of oneself were significant concepts in understanding human nature. Above all, Maslow saw the quality of human kinship of Gemeinschaftsgefuhl – compassion or humanism or ethics, coupled with humility – as the sign of a self-actualized person. All this gave the world of Psychology the ideal picture of a well adjusted person. Humanistic psychologists’ conception of man as healthy and mental illness as distortions gave a much-needed note of optimism to a discipline which psychoanalysis was taking in the direction of the pessimistic acceptance of humanity itself as basically flawed. Rogers’ actualizing tendency was based on the motivation of every human being to realize his full potential – to be the very best he can be. Rogers’ stressed positive regard as love, affection and nurturing, just as Maslow did, as essential to the development of the ideal self or the ‘fully functioning person’. Rogers’ immeasurable contribution to Humanistic Psychology and to society was of course, his Client- centered Therapy which is now termed Rogerian Therapy. R.D. Laing remarked to Rogers at their first meeting, “When you brought your chair out from behind your physicians chair and met your client face-to-face, you changed everything that psychotherapy was about” (O’Hara,1996). Substituting the word ‘patient’ with the word ‘client’ was itself a great innovation. Client-centered Therapy has given psychotherapy the requirements for the ideal therapist: congruence – honesty with the client, empathy – to be able to identify with and reflect the clients’ feelings and respect – acceptance of and an unconditional positive regard towards the client. Rogers’ stand that a humanistic attitude of compassion would do more for the mental well-being of the client than mechanical techniques, introduced a new respect for humanity and a compassion which definitely revolutionized the practice of psychotherapy. This enduring legacy is still incorporated into every school of psychotherapy in modern Psychology. The Humanistic Psychological concept of psychotherapy made a major contribution to society in that it changed the general perception of therapy as something meant only for the ‘mentally ill’ into an acceptance of therapy as an aid to help people to realize their full potential. Therapy was no longer a stigma to be ashamed of. It made therapy more open and accessible and made it a readily available tool to all. This is in line with Frederick Perlzs’ argument that “Therapy is too valuable to be reserved only for those who are mentally ill” (O’Hara,1996). Humanistic Psychology, as drawing much from the Phenomenological school of thought, also shifted the focus from quantitative methods of analysis to the more qualitative methods as being more suitable as an estimate of human character. Humanistic Psychology has brought about the acknowledgement of the fact that not everything in the human psyche can be measured in laboratories and tests but qualitative measures like observation, case studies, interviews, phenomenological methods are also a valid approach in practical Psychology. Frankls’ Logotherapy introduced a much-needed spirituality into the practice of psychotherapy which was in danger of cynicism. Again, he contributed to the humanization of psychological thought with his concept of the conscience as the basis of individual integrity and the striving of humankind to find their own meaning to life. His book, ‘Mans’ Search for Meaning’ was a revolution in its’ own right. Out of the fire of his harrowing experiences as the inmate of a concentration camp, Frankl gave society a guideline to find meaning to their own existence through their own values and the concept of always having the freedom to choose ones’ own path, even under the most testing of circumstances. His therapy sought to direct man to self-transcendence which encompasses a human being who finds joy in meaning and service towards others. His strong inspiration from religiosity can be seen as a major contribution to a jaded society, denuded of values. Just as Humanistic Psychology gave Psychology the framework to measure the healthy person as one who is self-actualized or self-transcendent, it also contributed to the broader picture of abnormal behavior. It listed the various causes that could lead to neuroses: deprivation of basic needs (Maslow), incongruity between the perception of the real self and the ideal self (Rogers), imbalance among motives, frustration caused by a lack of meaning (Frankl), resulting in depression and anxiety and low self-worth. Humanistic Psychology has also had a healthy impact on the field of education. Rogers advocated that the teacher must focus on his relationship with the student and act as a facilitator to learning in an environment which is perceived by the student as relaxed and free from intimidation or threats. This is a student-centered learning in which the students are allowed to choose their course of learning, the curriculum is tailored to their concerns and self-evaluation is encouraged. Another contribution of Humanistic Psychology to Psychology is the development of Transpersonal Psychology, pioneered by Robert Assagioli, which incorporated the approach of psychosynthesis. Transpersonal Psychology started off within Humanistic Psychology and then branched out. It still overlaps with it. Transpersonal Psychology involves the levels of body, emotion, intellect and the transpersonal, the last being akin to the humanistic vision of actualization. Humanistic Psychology has also influenced Neuro-linguistic Programming founded by Richard Bandler and John Grinder who drew from the fields of Gestalt Therapy and from the humanistic concepts of self-realization and achieving ones’ full potential. Criticism. Humanistic Psychology is sometimes criticized as taking too optimistic a view of human nature and lacking a scientific approach to the study of Psychology. The very concept of self-actualization which Humanistic Psychology holds as the mark of a healthy, well-adjusted individual does not lend itself to objective measurement. Because of its’ emphasis on qualitative methods, valid comparisons with other methods of Psychology cannot be made. Client-centered Therapy, while proving its’ worth in the treatment of people with social or emotional problems or personality disorders, often draws a blank when dealing with problems rooted in Physiology, such as schizophrenia (Dombeck, 2006). However, Humanistic Psychological Therapy has lent its’ approach to the other schools of therapy, particularly in the emphasis of the building up of respect and trust between the client and the therapist in order for any therapy to be successful. Humanistic Psychology is not a powerful force in the world of academic psychology in the present day, mainly because it has always been more of a practical approach. The Karl Moustakas Centre for Humanistic Studies changed its’ name to the Michigan School of Professional Psychology. One of the reasons for the slant away from Humanistic Psychology is that the rapid advances in Physiology and particularly in the study of the brain cannot be reconciled with the humanistic approach, which largely ignores Physiology. 9 References. Humanistic Psychology. (2006, September 13). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12.38, October 8, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanistic_psychology&oldid=75573094 Boeree, George 2006. Personality Theories. Retrieved on October 8,2006 from http://www.ship.edu/%7ecgboeree/rogers.html. Schafersman, Steven D. September 24, 1995. Updated December 1998. The History and Philosophy of Humanism. Retrieved on October 7, 2006 from http://www.freeinquiry.com/humanism-uu.html Dombeck, Mark. September 1, 2006. Humanistic Psychotherapy. Retrieved on October 7 2006 from http://mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doctid=10441 O’Hara, Maureen.1996 Keynote address. Reinventing the Growth Psychology Agenda Towards a Therapeutic Counter Culture. Retrieved on October 7 from http://www.ahpweb.org/pub/perspective/reinvent.htm. Read More