Psychology: Psychosis and Normal Functioning - Essay Example

? Exam Questions Psychology Psychosis and normal functioning Psychosis is a mental condition that affects the mind by grossly interfering with social, academic, occupational or basic day-to-day functioning. Psychosis can be used in place of insanity and mania. In this case, abnormal condition originates psychosis as a Greek word. Psychosis can be associated with other prior conditions such as inner (mental) conditions, general therapeutic conditions and substances, such as alcohol or drugs (Gleeson, 2004). Psychosis is treatable through medication; social support and psychological support. Other available options include facilitate recovery (Mosack, 2011). Normal Functioning is a flexibility that allows individuals to adjust to the diverse hassles and stress that life inflicts upon them. Normal functioning boosts the level of tolerance of frustrations as well as conflict to loneliness to some extent. It is able to relinquish upon life (Fredric Neuman, 2013). Some human normal functioning, characterized by normal behavior, has been receiving the medicalization emotion that led to treatment of normal conditions. These conditions get quoted as psychiatric disorders such as shyness (Lane, 2007). Ideally, Normal functioning is characterized in the classification of symptoms of Psychosis experiences and behavior’s that develops to a person’s normal way of functioning. Positive symptoms or excess normal functions include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking and disorganized behavior. Negative symptoms or diminution of normal functions includes reduced speech and flat effect (Mosack, 2011). Psychosis is visibly an abnormal condition that develops from normal functioning of an individual. A clear distinction can be made that normal functioning is based on human behavior through the mental activity when altered, leads to psychosis depending on the degree of variation of normal functioning. Normal is a state defined by the society thus the treatment of psychosis is based on what people suppose as normal functioning altogether (Weinberger, & Harrison). References Gleeson, J. (2004). Psychological interventions in early psychosis a treatment handbook. Chichester, West Sussex, England [u.a.: J. Wiley. Lane, C. (2007). Shyness: how normal behavior became a sickness. New Haven: Yale University Press. Mosack, V. (2011). Psychiatric nursing certification review guide for the generalist and advanced practice: psychiatric and mental health nurse (3rd ed.). Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Weinberger, D. R., & Harrison, P. J. (2011). Schizophrenia (3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. 2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this idea DSM-V. It is clear that, despite major advances being realized in the treatment of psychosis, the outcomes of treatment have not yet reached a satisfactory threshold. This can easily be attributed to delayed identification and intervention in curbing the illness in its early stages of pronouncement. Therefore, the inclusion of an attenuated syndrome in the DSM-V program is highly appreciated (Corcoran et al, 2010). It is plausible that such intervention will ostensibly provide a clear viewpoint that will facilitate the definition of psychosis risk syndromes and hence the evaluation of better treatment approaches that will curb early advancement of psychosis (Yung et al., 2008). The basic guideline for the inclusion of this APS takes into account the fact that most patients are currently very ill with a possibility of their conditions deteriorating. One of the main merits of this approach is that the placement of patients under the DSM-V program will promote the much-needed treatment and facilitate prevention research. In the long run, this will facilitate the establishment of a platform for a standard state of care that will hugely benefit the patients, as well as their families. One major disadvantage posed by this approach is that it may be unscrupulously used to screen the larger population with the possibility of the affected individuals being subjected to stigma (Woods et al., 2010). Another major concern is that one of the most common outcomes associated with the practice is the possibility that a non-psychotic disorder may be prevalent after the treatment (McGorry, 2010). In conclusion, it seems that this approach is widely welcome in the treatment and management of psychosis. However, there is a need for conducting more elaborate field trials to prove that the approach is as effective in clinical conditions as it is in the research setting References Corcoran CM, First MB, Cornblatt B. (2010), The psychosis risk syndrome and its proposed inclusion in the DSM-V: a risk–benefit analysis. (PUBMED). McGorry PD. (2010), Risk syndromes, clinical staging and DSM V: new diagnostic infrastructure for early intervention in psychiatry. (New York: Sky’s Edge Publishing). Woods SW, Carlson JP, McGlashan TH. (2010), DSM-5 and the ‘Psychosis Risk Syndrome (PUBMED). Yung AR, Nelson B, Stanford C, Simmons MB, Cosgrave EM, Killackey E, Phillips LJ, Bechdolf A, Buckby J, McGorry PD. (2008), Validation of prodromal criteria to detect individuals at ultra high risk of psychosis: American Psychiatric Association. 3. Environmental influences that lead to increased risk of psychosis Environmental risks and other defending factor in psychosis play a major role in the course and development of the disorder. Research has given forth a variety of environmental factors that have an impact on the emergence of the disorder. These factors comprise of pre-and perinatal insults, family environment, stress and trauma, and cannabis use. Other factors include poor nutrition, stressful life events, culture, poverty, war, abuse and exposure to toxins (Sturmberg, 2013). The above factors do not act in isolation in contributing to the development of the psychological disorder. Changes on chemical modifications resulting from the genes relations to the environment lead to varied genes. These alterations in the genes result to new-borns with disorders like schizophrenia. Psychosis schizophrenia and prodromal states are highly hereditary. However, Concordance rates obtained from monozygotic twins are around 50 percent. The remaining discrepancy attributed to environmental factors (Coon, & Mitterer, 2010). Pre-and perinatal neurodevelopment cause fetal hypoxia. These arise due to of oxygen deficiency to the fetal tissues leading to severe complications in parental growth. Family environment seen to be unhealthy, with conflict and critical issues influence, contribute greatly to the disorder. Families influence gene modification (Yudofsky, & Hales, 2008). A family member with psychosis can therefore increase the chances of the offspring born with the disorder. Stress and trauma at early stages of development influence the occurrence of schizophrenia at old age. Children brought up in environment at harbouring stress have a high propensity of being treated with psychosis disorder related ailments (Poli, Borgwardt, & McGuire, 2012). The risk of schizophrenia in offspring exposed to cases of famine during the parental period increases (Yudofsky, & Hales, 2008). Other factors like geographical location and urbanity influence the disorder. Urban places have characteristics of pollution and congestion, this lead to stain in resources, hence stress causing psychoses (Gumley, & Schwannauer, 2006). References Coon, D., & Mitterer, J.O . (2010). Psychology: Modules for Active Learning.: Modules for Active Learning. Belmont S.l.: Cengage Learning. Gumley, A., & Schwannauer, M. (2006). Staying well after psychosis: a cognitive interpersonal approach to recovery and relapse prevention. Chichester, England: Wiley. Poli, P., Borgwardt, S., & McGuire, P. (2012). Vulnerability to psychosis: from neurosciences to psychopathology. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press. Sturmberg, J. P. (2013). Handbook of systems and complexity in health. New York: Springer. Yudofsky, S. C., & Hales, R. E. (2008). The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of neuropsychiatry and behavioral neurosciences (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub.. 4. Is Schizophrenia Hereditary? Yes, genes and genetics are linked to schizophrenia disorder. However, little heredity occurs in schizophrenia but also depends on the environment. There is a proven genetic basis but complex mode of inheritance. Peter McGuffin posits that the only gene strongly related to schizophrenia is a gene named COMT (Catechol o-methyltransferase). When it is abnormal, it impairs brain activity and sense of veracity, symptoms of schizophrenia. Drake R J (2005) and Picchioni MM (2007) gave an account of the statistical relationship of schizophrenia in identical twins is almost fifty percent. It can also be seen that when infection is for one parent the risk is about thirteen percent and both parents it is nearly half a whole. Schizophrenia is lowly genetic because there are certain genes that contribute as well as its percentages is less than fifty percent as well as the environment. Molecular Genetics in Schizophrenia has helped understand schizophrenia, in that it has proven the relations of genes and environment towards schizophrenia as well as disapproved some hypothesis leading to the possibility of gene therapy.. Huber et al., (1980) recalls that even before any actual symptoms, patients may develop some strange emotions in relation to self and the environment. Young et al., (1996) later on, stipulates that before the first acute phase of the disorder, patients usually experience prodromal symptoms for a few days to several years. Maser et al. (2004) and Tandon et al., (2009) give an account of the acute phase to be the most prominent symptoms are the positive symptoms, the most characteristic features of schizophrenia. The acute phase followed by stabilization of the disorder, which may typically last for several months. In this phase, the negative symptoms usually strengthen. The overall performance usually remains, however, at a lower level than before the disorder onset, and typically shows no significant improvement with time. References Drake RJ, L. S. (2005). Early detection of shizophrenia. In L. S. Drake RJ, Current Opinion in Psychiatry. M, H. (2011). Etiological Considerations. In Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis. John Wiley and Sons. Peter McGuffin, M. J. (n.d.). Psychiatric Genetics and Genomics. 2004: Oxfor University Press. Picchioni MM, M. R. (2007). Schizophrenia. BMJ. 5. What is  the  evidence  that  schizophrenia  is  a  neurodevelopmental  disorder?   The neurodevelopmental theories of schizophrenia have had an important aspect putting most focus on the etiological research over the past few years. Some of the distinct cases of schizophrenia such as Early Onset Schizophrenia, EOS, have been of great importance in this study. EOS is a very rare and a severe case of schizophrenia that occurs at childhood or during adolescence. To aid this study, as assessment on developmental, genetic, cognitive, as well as the brain imaging discoveries, took place. The neurological evidence on schizophrenia also posits that some biological pathogenic characteristics or events get present in humans at earlier stages than the commencement of the full blown disease (Ritsner, 2010). A neurodevelopmental etiological theory of schizophrenia has proved to be of high importance in the past decades. This theory shows that there is a lot of deviance in early brain development in which the adverse consequences emerge at later stages only during early childhood or adolescence. Brain changes and behavioral abnormalities preceding the onset of illnesses form the possible risk markers as well as mechanisms underlay psychosis. Some instances of neurological malfunctions can be used to depict early instances of schizophrenia. Some children have delayed social, speech and language functions. These impairments arise due to some brain malfunctions. Therefore, it becomes clear that impairments signify a disorder, schizophrenia. Other delayed functions controlled by the brain include the intellectual ability. Studies looking into intellectual functioning disabilities relate to schizophrenia. Studies into parts of the brain of persons with the disorder show that most brains parts have impairments. The research shows that there is an increased volume in the lateral ventricles and a slight decrease in the overall brain (Goldstein, & Reynolds, 2005). Other meta-analysis indicates that the left superior temporal gyrus and the left medial temporal lobes have lessened features, a characteristic for schizophrenia. According to Alexander (2001), schizophrenia has several relationships with the neurodevelopmental model of injury. The model suggests that the cognitive deficits in the brain are a trait to schizophrenia (Cicchetti, & Walker, 2003). References Cicchetti, D., & Walker, E. F. (2003). Neurodevelopmental mechanisms in psychopathology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Goldstein, S., & Reynolds, C. R. (2005). Handbook of neurodevelopmental and genetic disorders in adults. New York: Guilford Press. Ritsner, M. S. (2010). Brain protection in schizophrenia, mood and cognitive disorders. Dordrecht: Springer. 6. Psychological mechanisms responsible for mania Mania may be caused by certain factors including genetic, environmental, physiological, neurological, evolutionary and neuroendocrinological factors. Maniac depression affects a person’s ability to take part in a society. The evolutionary theory suggests that natural selection takes place in the genes responsible for manic depression (First & Tasman, 2006). Evolutionary theorists assume that mania could have originated from an alteration to dangerous climatic situations in the northern temperate region throughout the Pleistocene. The evolutionary basis of mania implies that, throughout the short summers of dangerous climatic zones, hypomania would be active. This allowed the conclusion of many errands essential for survival within a short time (Kearney & Trull, 2012). Genetic researchers have implied that mania gets passed on through inheritance. Genetic factors account for nearly 80% of the causes of mania. Research shows that if one parent has mania, there exists a 10% possibility that his or her offspring will develop the disorder. On the other hand, if both parents have mania, the probability of their child having mania is close to 40%. However, this fact does not mean that because one family member has the disease, the rest of the family members will also get the illness. Other factors also determine the situation (Winokur & Tsuang, 1996). For women who are biologically or genetically susceptible, there are high chances that they may develop mania during pregnancy. The pregnancy period may correspond with the woman experiencing mania for the first time (Hendrick, 2006). References First, M., & Tasman, A. (2006). Clinical Guide to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Mental Disorders. Chichester, West Sussex, England: Wiley. Hendrick, V. (2006). Psychiatric disorders in pregnancy and the postpartum principles and treatment. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press. Kearney, C., & Trull, T. (2012). Abnormal psychology and life: a dimensional approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub Co. Randomized controlled trials for psychosocial interventions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Winokur, G., & Tsuang, M. (1996). The natural history of mania, depression, and schizophrenia. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. 7. Auditory hallucination An auditory hallucination refers to a situation whereby a person feels as if he has heard voices while, in the real sense, there are no voices. Auditory hallucinations may be linked to psychotic illnesses such as schizophrenia or mania. The study of auditory hallucinations may be important in finding the cure for schizophrenia or mania. However, experiencing auditory hallucinations does not imply that a person has the mental disorder (Pletson, 2007). There are other types of hallucinations: visual hallucinations, olfactory hallucinations, tactile hallucinations and temporary hallucinations. However, auditory hallucinations are the most common. Auditory hallucinations may be caused by various factors. Some of these factors are mental illnesses, substance abuse, insomnia, medications, terminal disorders such as AIDS, seizures, migraines and epilepsy (Puente & Tonkonogy, 2008). The causes of auditory hallucinations can be characterized into two: diseases associated causes, and non- disease associated causes. The main disease associated causes of auditory hallucination for mentally ill patients is schizophrenia. The patients have a broadened temporal white matter, temporal grey matter, and frontal grey matter. This indicates that both functional and physical defects can cause auditory hallucinations. Mood disarrays can also cause auditory hallucinations, but the effects are not as severe as those of psychotic patients (Jones, 2012). Auditory hallucinations can be treated using a number of ways. However, the treatment will depend on their primary cause. If auditory hallucinations results from substance abuse, for example, use of cocaine, refraining from its use will help to stop or reduce auditory hallucinations (Hales & Yudofsky, 2003). References Hales, R., & Yudofsky, S. (2003). The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of clinical psychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub. Jones, S. (2012). Hearing voices the histories, causes, and meanings of auditory verbal hallucinations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Pletson, J. (2007). Psychology and schizophrenia. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Puente, A., & Tonkonogy, J. (2008). Localization in neuropsychology. New York: New York. 8. Randomized controlled trials A randomized control test is a form of scientific trial mostly used to test the effectiveness of numerous types of medication within a selected number of patients. Also, randomized control trials have an application in the collection of information concerning the side effects of different forms of drugs. When conducting a randomized control trial, patients usually receive other treatment under the study (Machin & Fayers, 2010). Randomized control trials have a couple of advantages: Randomization reduces the likelihood of prejudice. For randomization to be well implemented, its sequence must be properly concealed. The authors of the results of the trials provide sufficient details about the experiment. Therefore, the psychologists are able to determine the effectiveness of the medicine. As a result of the reduction of bias, randomized control trials usually produce accurate information most of the time (Nezu & Nezu, 2008). Randomized control trials help in the production of comparable results. When psychologists carry out a variety of tests concerning different types of treatments, randomized control trials help them to compare the results which obtained. The measure of the predictive factors is oftenly, evenly balanced amid the mediation and the control unit and on the average (Halligan & Wade, 2005). However, randomized control trials have a couple of disadvantages. They may provide information that a certain psychotic treatment is useful in nature and it ends up being dangerous. Randomized control trials only provide information about short-term analysis. It may show that a certain treatment is beneficial, but it ends up being dangerous in the long-run (Rutter, 2008). References Halligan, P., & Wade, D. (2005). The effectiveness of rehabilitation for cognitive deficits. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Machin, D., & Fayers, P. (2010). Randomized clinical trials design, practice and reporting. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Nezu, A., & Nezu, C. (2008). Evidence-based outcome research: a practical guide to conducting randomized controlled experiments for psychosocial interventions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rutter, M. (2008). Rutter's child and adolescent psychiatry. Malden: Blackwell Pub. 9. Long-term outcome of bipolar disorder The long-term results of bipolar disorders are not always bad. It sounds ironical putting the term “bipolar” and “positive” in the same sentence. However, studies have proved that not all outcomes brought about by bipolar disorders are negative. In February 2011, a study published in the journal of affective disorders had these facts laid down. The study indicated that bipolar disorders do not cause negative effects in the long-run. It stated that individuals who were suffering from bipolar illnesses seemed to possess certain psychological characteristics. These traits can be perceived as valuable and beneficial both morally and socially (Lerer, 2008). The authors evaluated 81 researches and found that there was a positive trait in individuals with bipolar illnesses. Some researchers who included Nassir Ghaemi and his workmates from Tufts Medical Center deduced that boosting and appreciation of the positive features of bipolar could help fight stigma and enhance patient outcomes (Johnson & Leahy, 2004). The authors who studied the positive traits in bipolar individuals discovered that there was a strong relation between them patients and some positive qualities. The qualities included spirituality, realism, sympathy, resilience and creativity (Horton, 2013). Ghaemi, a psychiatrist who is also the manager of the Mood Ailment Program at Tufts Medical center has written a book which got widely publicized. In his book, he asserts that leaders with bipolar disorders are more suitable for the time of crisis. This is because they have more solid qualities: realism, creativity and resilience. According to Ghaemi, depression facilitates sympathy and realism. Mania, on the other hand, enhances creativity and resilience. Therefore, when individuals have bipolar disorder they have a wide range of benefits (Ghaemi, 2011). References Ghaemi, S. (2011). A first-rate madness: uncovering relations between leadership and mental illness. New York: Penguin Press. Horton, S. (2013). Affective disorder and the writing life: the melancholic muse. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Johnson, S., & Leahy, R. (2004). Psychological treatment of bipolar disorder. New York: Guilford Press. Lerer, B. (2008). Integrative approaches to affective disorders. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 10. Psychological treatment for psychosis Psychological treatment for psychosis is gradually getting recognized. In current years, there have been two psychological methods of dealing with psychosis, family interventions (FI) and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Cognitive behavioral theory and family interventions have proved to be effective in that, CBT found reduced signs in psychosis and family interventions found reduced relapse (Dimeff & Koerner, 2007). There are numerous reasons as to why psychological therapies for psychosis get encouraged. First, following antipsychotic medication is oftenly poor among patients. This is because patients fail to take their medication as prescribed. This is mainly due to ignorance and forgetfulness. Secondly, although antipsychotic medication is the main treatment for psychosis, it does not assure a good outcome. Lastly, when antipsychotic medication gets administered, a large portion of individuals will relapse (Taylor & Lindsay, 2012). There are four approaches that have emerged to be effective therapies to be taken into consideration when treating people with psychosis. They include family interventions, CBT, cognitive remediation, and social skills training. In a study conducted in the United Kingdom, it shows that when studied together, CBT and FI have the most solid base for effectiveness (Antony, Ledley, & Heimberg, 2005). CBT’s effectiveness can be noted in that; a study conducted in the UK within the last decade proves that distressing signs such as delusions, depression, negative signs and hallucinations respond positively to Cognitive Behavior Therapy. Family interventions, on the other hand, have shown that patients with supportive families less often relapse get hospitalized (Morrison, 2004). References Antony, M., Ledley, D., & Heimberg, R. (2005). Improving outcomes and preventing relapse in cognitive-behavioral therapy. New York: Guilford Press. Dimeff, L., & Koerner, K. (2007). Dialectical behavior therapy in clinical practice: applications across disorders and settings. New York: Guilford Press. Morrison, A. (2004). Cognitive therapy for psychosis: a formulation-based approach. Hove: Brunner-Routledge. Taylor, J., & Lindsay, W. (2012). Psychological Therapies for Adults with Intellectual Disabilities. Chicester: Wiley. Read More