Drugs and Behavior - Assignment Example

?Running Head: DRUGS & BEHAVIOR Drugs & Behavior Teacher’s ID Literature Review Introduction Drugs and other substance abuse is one of the leading causes behind impaired mental health globally. Where drugs can have significant impact on user’s physical health, its effects on one’s cognitive functioning tends to have life threatening consequences for user as well as those around them. The purpose of this literature review is to identify behavioral consequences of drugs abuse. Some of the common behavioral outcomes of drugs abuse are violence, aggressiveness, paranoia, hallucinations, addiction, impaired judgment, impulsiveness, depression and disturbed sexual behaviors. There are several drugs that are categorized as substance abuse such as cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine, sedatives, opioids etc. Drug abuse and its addiction is chronic disorder that affects one’s cognition and leads to impulsive drug seeking having negative impacts on mental health. Drug abuse leads to sever changes in brain’s functioning and its structure which also causes behavioral changes that may affect quality of life and social support. Drug abuse further causes disruption in user’s self-control and ability of making rationale decisions. Where it is difficult to identify what causes drug abuse, there are evidences available that indicate risks of relapse which further distorts user’s self-perception. There are also several risk factors that increase the risk of drug abuse such as genes, socio-economic status, personal history and adverse living conditions. In order to identify how drugs alter user’s behavior, it is important to understand how brain functions after induction of drugs into human body. Various studies have shown that once entered into human brain, it imitates natural transmitters. These transmitters are produced by brain and replacing actual transmitters sends irregular messages to the whole body resulting in disturbed behavior. In addition to that drugs abuse excessively sensitizes brain’s reward system that creates feeling of pleasure and satisfaction after use of drugs. Due to continued use, the brain adapts and reduces reception for reward system which increases user’s tolerance level. Therefore, higher amount of dose is required in order to create same amount of pleasure. Further behavioral consequences of drug abuse are discussed below: 2. Violent Behavior and Drugs abuse It is important to note that use of drugs itself is an indication of unhealthy behavior. Where it can lead to various forms of mental illnesses, it can also be used as coping mechanism against mental disorders. Therefore, it can be said that use of drugs and display of violent behavior has a bidirectional relationship (Xue, Zimmerman, Cunningham, 2009; Mulvey et al., 2006). This notion is supported by research of Cooley-Strickland et al. (2009) as their research indicates exposure to violence in community settings a possible reason behind substance abuse in young age. This argument is further supported by Boles and Miotto (2003) as they consider socio-economic conditions surrounding drugs access and use to be the decisive factor causing violence. Volavka and Swanson (2010) explore such relationship between co-morbidity of substance abuse and mental illnesses leading to violent behavior. According to them, patients with severe mental disorders like schizophrenia are more likely to opt for substance abuse and illicit drugs and pharmacological effects of these two can result in inherent risk of violent behavior. Same argument is further extended by Swanson et al. (2002) as they consider substance abuse to be the major contextual variable leading to violent behavior. However, Swanson et al. (2002) mentioned drug abuse to be a possible outcome of trauma experienced earlier in life which leads to compounded impact of adverse social conditions. Where Stuart (2003) negates the idea of mental illness being a substantial reason of violent behavior, it does consider drug abusers to be at the highest risk of displaying violent behavior. Another rationale is provided by Swartz et al. (1998) for violent behavior exhibited by mentally ill individuals using different forms of substance. The research indicates absence of treatment and poor adherence to medication to be the prime factor that may further alleviate the risk of violent behavior in such individuals. Where above discussed studies support the notion of relationship between drugs and violence, Hoaken and Stewart (2003) explore individual reactions of different substances and illustrate that some of the drugs may not always lead to a violent behavior e.g. Cannabis. However, their addiction and withdrawal can result in aggression that may lead to violent acts. Therefore, it’s not always the use of drugs that can cause violent behavior but also its addiction and absence that may provoke user to use force as a coping mechanism against threats around them. 3. Drugs Abuse & Hallucinations Another possible outcome of drugs abuse which may have an impact on cognitive and social functioning is hallucination. Hallucinogens are expected to produce visual distortions and a depersonalized experience of time and place. Unlike hallucinations experienced during schizophrenia, hallucinations caused by drugabuse are more visual than auditory. Drugs abuse may also be accompanied by a state of hallucination called flash backs in which drug user may experience same visual images in a drug free state as in a drug administered state (Chaudhury, 2010). It is also important to note that hallucinations caused by prolonged use of various substances may persist for quite some time ranging from months to years dependent on the intoxication of blood supply (Gillard & Borruat, 2003; Nicholson et al., 2006). Furthermore, onsets of hallucinations are expected to be more frequent and multidimensional i.e. auditory, visual and olfactory when the user is already suffering from major mental disorders (Sokolski, Cummings, Abrams, DeMet, Katz & Costa, 1994). The nature of hallucination also varies dependent on type of drug used. For example, tactile hallucination is experienced more in case of cocaine or amphetamine. Such hallucinations when aggravated can lead to impaired cognition and social functioning which can increase probability of occurrence of persistent mental disorders like chronic depression and violent behavior. It is important to note that this condition is expected to persist even after discontinued use of drugs and has a long lasting impact on user’s behavioral health. 4. Paranoia & Drug Abuse Paranoia is a delusional state of mind where a paranoid individual perceives others to have intentions of harming himself. Some of the common types of paranoid thoughts are suspicions regarding other’s intentions, feeling of mistrust towards others including closed ones, assuming and questioning what others are plotting against you, assuming that there is a hidden meaning in the way people are treating you or looking at you, attempting to find out hidden signals in relatively regular things like advertisements, emails etc and having a belief that you have a special role to play in this world which is either unknown to or unrecognized by others. Where it is natural to experience paranoid thoughts from time to time, they can indicate major mental problems. It is also considered as one of the major outcomes of use and withdrawal of various kinds of substances. Such paranoid feelings may increase with high dose or persistent use of drugs over time. Bampton and Neiberg (n.d) provide a direct relationship between posttraumatic disorder, paranoia and drug abuse by stating that paranoia is one of the common symptoms of PTSD and it is aggravated with the use of substance. It is further enhanced with a combined use of multiple drugs like cocaine and cannabis. Paranoia is found to be more intense in users of cocaine which further lead to other psychotic conditions including severe homicidal and suicidal thoughts (Morton, 1999). 5. Impulsivity & Drug Abuse The ability to think and act quickly though being a symptom of effective cognitive processing when coupled with rash behavior may have critical consequences. Impulsivity is considered as a major symptom of substance dependence having a self-damaging effect. It is considered as an outcome of emotional dysregulation which is inability of controlling any adverse experience and acting adaptively. Research also indicates impulsivity to be an important predictor of substance use especially cocaine. This relation is further aggravated with severity of overuse and further withdrawal (Moeller et al., 2001a). It is important to note that impulsivity is not an inherent outcome of substance abuse. However, its probability in response to drug abuse may increase if other co-morbid psychotic conditions exist in the same user. Moeller at el. (2001b) attempts to establish a relationship between substance dependence and impulsivity by asserting that dependence on multiple drugs enhances risks of impulsivity in drug users as compared to those using single drug. Also, presence of borderline personality disorder enhances impulsive behavior under the influence of drugs. Furthermore, this research considers impulsivity and drugs abuse to be a bidirectional relationship. This relationship is supported by utilizing data present on ADHD in adolescents and concomitant disorder in children which may increase the risk of substance abuse in later part of life. 6. Substance-induced Mood & Anxiety disorders According to Quello, Brady and Sonne (2005), mood disorders (depression and bipolar disorders) are the most concurrent conditions with substance abuse. The reason for this concurrence is provided as disorder fostering disorder which states that occurrence of one may increase probability for another. Adverse moods may lead to craving of substance abuse in order to combat undesired mood swings. Where substance abuse may reduce the intensity of adverse feelings, its withdrawal can further worsen the situation. Furthermore, such expedient and short-term option may turn a one-time use into consistent abuse. Another rationale behind mood disorders caused by substance abuse is overlapping neurobiological pathways. Use of drugs leads to sensitization of neurons due to which they become resilient to disruption. Therefore, occasional use of drugs may be replaced by frequent abuse and even addiction. Another possible outcome of drugs abuse is onset of anxiety disorders. Anxiety disorder itself is categorized into multiple disorders such as social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety and substance-induced anxiety. However, substance-induced anxiety is one of the most common behavioral problems faced by users of drugs in United States. Over the counter medicine and recreational drugs abuse and especially their withdrawal can result in general symptoms of anxiety such as chest pain, choking, problems in breathing, palpitations etc (Hudson, 2013). Also, such behavioral disorder is more likely to be present female users of drugs. Such severe changes in mood and frequent episodes of panic and anxiety attacks may not only affect physical health but can also have persistent impact on one’s behavior which can affect quality of life as well as social functioning having long-term impact on one’s support mechanism. 7. Risky Sexual Behavior and Drug Abuse Research has indicated that drug intoxication causes risky behavior due to impaired judgment. As a result, users tend to undertake sexual risk. Risky sexual behavior constitutes early sexual activation, incorrect use of protection and multiple sexual partners in short span of time. Studies conducted by Floyd and Latimer (2010), and Santelli et al. (2004) have indicated that drugs abuse has a direct correlation with early sexual activation. Although it is difficult to establish a direct link between use of protection and substance abuse, one can generalize this notion that using a protection during sex is a matter of rational judgment. Since drug abuse has an ability of impairing cognitive functioning, the decisions regarding protection would be different during the state of drug abuse and its absence. Furthermore, Springer et al. (2007) have mentioned sexual interaction with multiple partners at one time to be directly related to increase in use of drugs. 8. Other Behavioral Outcomes Other than above mentioned outcomes, drug abuse may lead to other behavioral disorders by alleviating their risks. Some of these disorders are major depression, ADHD, borderline personality disorder, generalized anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, disruptive mood deregulation disorder, depersonalization disorder and substance dependence. Where most of mental disorders affecting user’s cognition and behavior may not be caused by drugs use directly, it does contribute to their early and severe onset. 9. Physiological Explanation of Behavioral Changes Caused By Drugs Abuse In order to understand the rationale behind addiction of drugs and behavioral changes caused by it, it is important to understand changes taken place in the physiology of brain. Research has indicated that brain’s reward circuit plays a vital role in changing occasional use of drugs into a habitual or addictive behavior. Addiction of drugs is described as intense craving or desire of drugs irrespective of knowing its hazardous outcomes. After use of drugs, a reward circuit initiates due to release of dopamine and completes in brain which illustrates use of drug to be an activity full of pleasure, further encouraging its future or overuse (Tremblay et al., 2002). Hence, such repetitive behavior may lead to synaptic changes resulting in drug seeking behavior. Furthermore, continued and persistent changes in this reward mechanism may lead to permanent rehabilitation or relapse. Explanation for such behavioral changes is provided by Koob and LeMoal (2001). In this research, a dysregulation in brain’s reward system increases with continued drug use, such changes become consistent with overall brain’s physiology and lead to compulsive urge of drug abuse leading to loss of control over one’s will. These physiological changes also use various reinforcements to maintain this dysregulation in brain’s structure. As a result, a drug user who has ceased to use drugs once remains vulnerable to it even after actual use has ceased. 10. Conclusion Use of drugs can have significant effects on one’s behavior. Prolonged use may not only cause impaired brain functioning but can also transform into substance dependence which is an addictive behavior. There are several kinds of behavioral changes that might be contributed to long-term use of drugs. Violence and aggression is one of the possible behavioral outcomes of drugs abuse and its related withdrawal. The risks for violent behavior further increase due to existence of mental illnesses and poor adherence to medication combined with use of drugs. Drugs abuse can also result in hallucinations that may make it difficult for drug users’ to differentiate between real life and hallucinated events. Another critical outcome of this abuse is paranoia which is an extreme cynical behavior causing drug user to perceive everyone scheming against them and seeing peculiar patterns in random events. Since drugs use impairs general cognition, it may also increase impulsivity in one’s behavior. Such impulsive behavioral display may take place due to drugs’ withdrawal as well caused by its cravings. Drugs abuse can also cause behavioral disorders like substance-induced mood and anxiety disorders. Undesired mood swings and excessive anxiety coupled with physical symptoms are some of the common symptoms. Furthermore, risky sexual behavior is also seen in users of drugs. It is important to note that drug abuse cannot be considered as a sole reason behind behavioral dysfunctional and socio-economic conditions along with personal history play a vital role. However, excessive use of drugs has a greater risk attached to it in terms of onsets of these behavioral problems. In addition to that, drug abuse and behavioral problems also have a bidirectional relation where presence of one increases chances of other’s occurrence. References Boles, S.M., & Miotto, K. (2003). Substance abuse and violence: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8(2), 155-174. Bampton, M., & Neiberg, M.N. (n.d). Patients with paranoid symptoms: considerations for the optometrist. Optometry & Visual Performance, 1(3), 100-104. Cooley-Strickland, M., Quille, T.J., Griffin, R.S., Stuart, E.A., Bradshaw, C.P., & Furr-Holden, D. (2009). Community violence and youth: affect, behavior, substance use, and academics. 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