Development of the Tower of London Paradigm - Assignment Example

? Discussions Discussions Question One: London Tower Test Development of the Tower of London paradigm based on concerns associated with Tower of Hanoi led to the study of planning deficits. Poor performance on the Tower of London Test implies inefficiency in planning. This is because performance is dependent on efficiency of mental preplanning. It tests ones ability to plan and anticipate in advance, enabling correct completion of a task. The Tower of London Test requires supervisory processing because spatial and verbal tasks are detrimental to performance. However, the nature of processing the task relates significantly with execution and monitoring of planning rather than formation of effective preplans of large sequence of moves. Furthermore, visual-spatial is involved more in the task compared to verbal memory. It is necessary for researchers to proffer useful insight regarding the assessment of Tower of London performance in relation to brain activity. The working memory is greatly involved in the test’s performance. This limitation makes it unlikely for people to make complete preplans while responding to an effortful cognitive task. This is because several people adapt and develop strategies that require fewer resources. Idealized performance might need complete mental preplanning but participating in cognitive tests may make it difficult to load memory plans (McMeans, 2008). The Tower of London requires thinking and planning. However, the time spent preplanning does not necessarily result in an efficient or accurate solution of the test. Additionally, limitations seem to appear with regard to mental plans as people face difficulty in mental planning for more than one sub-goal ahead (McMeans, 2008). Question 2: The Glasgow Coma Scale The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is used in the assessment of patients’ levels of consciousness. The international standard scale ranges from 3 to 15 with a higher score representing a higher level of consciousness. The scores of 13 and above imply a mild impairment and the range of 9 to 12 imply moderate impairment. Scores between 3 and 8 imply a severe impairment and a score of 3 is the minimum, commonly experienced by the comatose patients (Jallo & Loftus, 2009). The GCS monitors the consciousness level through observation, assessment and recording of the verbal responses and eye opening. It also focuses on responses of the motor to different stimuli such as touch, voice and pain. Points for each response are allocated and the summation indicates the level of severity of conscious impairment. The GCS improves the quality of care and reduces delay between the evaluation time, investigation and intervention time (Gupta, 2008). Digit span tests and block-tapping tests are measures of orientation used to determine attention capacity. It is designed to measure the short term memory score of the participants. It comprises of the forward and backward digit span tests. In backward digit span, recitation of digits read to participants is required to be in a reverse order while recitation is normal for the forward case the. Disappearance of information in the short term memory is due to decay or displacement of digits through a series of selective filters. It measures the cognitive impairment of an individual in the context of a neuropsychological evaluation. Block-Tapping is used in the test of non-verbal such as visual-spatial memory span. It is used in neuropsychology, rehabilitation and psychology related to work (Jallo & Loftus, 2009). Question 3: Stroop, Digits Forward and Backward, Serial Sevens and Trail Making Test A & B Standardized tests such as Stroop, Digits Forward and Backward, Serial Sevens and Trail Making Test A & B are powerful instruments used in clinical educational contexts in measuring cognitive function such as schoolchildren. Performing these tests is relevant in the determination of attention and cognitive operations. The Digit Span requires children to orally repeat a series of digits by the examiners. This test measures the child’s short-term auditory memory and attention. Its two parts of digit forward and digit backward involve different components of the memory. In digit forward, children are required to repeat series of digits ranging from two to nine in the same order given by their examiner. It involves the auditory storage of the memory in the short-term. In the digit backward case, children need to recite the digits in reverse order. It involves the active manipulation of the stored information (Emre, 2010). The Trial Making Test of subset A requires the connection of randomly located circles by the examinee with numbers ranging from 1 to 25 in a numerical order as fast as possible. For the subset B, the connection of the circles is alternative with the numbers 1 to 13 and letters A to L sequentially as fast as possible. Neurological patients reveal deficient performance in subset B because of their impairment of inhibitory processing. Inhibitory processing is a vital role of the attention of executive network (Emre, 2010). The Stroop test is used to measure selective attention in cognitive and neurological studies. The participants task is to name the color in which the words are printed. Attention by the participants is dimensional to the color while ignoring the meaning of the word simultaneously. For instance, there is difficulty in naming the word “RED” printed in green color due to the intrusive effects of the words leading to poor performance. The performance relies on the duration of reaction time compared to a neutral condition. The interference effect of the Stroop is computed through comparison of performance in the neutral and incongruent condition. Serial sevens involve the subtraction test used to examine the level of concentration. These concentration tests are relevant to athletes that incur brain injuries. If the athlete is impaired in the memory, then these concentration tests bring out this condition clearly. Teams with a risk of concussion require baseline testing for comparison in case of future injuries (Strauss, Sherman & Spreen, 2006). Question four: Choice Theory and positive reinforcement Operant conditioning focuses on the behavior of people after a response. Reinforcement of specific responses on a proper schedule might either amplify or decrease the behavior. For example, through application of choice theory in a healthcare setting, key focus is the individual’s response to specific stimuli. This is followed by making a decision on the procedure that best reinforces a change of behavior. A positive reinforcement is likely to enhance a response prone to be repeated in the same circumstances. For example, the groaning and moaning of a patient while attempting to stand up and walk for the first time after an operation, encouragement for this effort improves his or her possibility to struggle towards independence (Sharf, 2012). However, enhancement in behavior is applicable through negative reinforcement after a response. It involves the removal of unpleasant stimulus through escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning. An individual’s choice to engage in behavior that does not appear to be positively reinforced is through avoidance conditioning. The unlikable stimulus in avoidance conditioning is anticipated instead of directly applied. An example is the tendency of an individual becoming ill in order to avoid something. For instance, a child in fear of a test may resolve to claim that he has a stomachache to the parents. Allowing the child by the parents to stay home from school makes the child to complain of sickness as a way of avoiding unpleasant situations. Sickness is a behavior that is increased through behaviors that are not positively reinforced (Erwin, 2004). Question five: Working with a first grade classroom to stay quiet during meeting time According to operant conditioning, behaviors may be decreased through punishment or reinforcement. For a classroom to stay quiet during meetings, operant conditioning principles are applied. The easiest way to extinguish a response, in this case noisemaking, is not to provide any form of reinforcement. For instance, comical jokes in the class might be handled by not showing any reaction. After several attempts, the joke tellers in the classroom that seek attention may curtail their use of offensive humor (Sharf, 2012). However, if non-reinforcement proves to be ineffective, resorting to punishment may be employed as a means of reducing the response of noisemaking. Under the conditions of punishment, it is impossible for the individuals to escape or avoid the unpleasant stimulus of pain. For example, punishment in the form of suspension or expulsion from school may place an individual’s future at jeopardy. Contrary, use of punishment to students may divert attention from the behavior that requires change because of the associated high emotions. The punished individuals become sad and angry without remembering the behavior behind the punishment (Erwin, 2004). This means that administering of punishment is required immediately after the response with no means of escaping or distractions. Consistency of punishment should be upheld at a reasonable level. Avoidance of Smiling while administering punishment is considered as it sends mixed messages. This is likely not to be taken seriously in decreasing the behavior. Additionally, prolonging punishment is not advisable such as complaining of the behavior at all opportunities and bringing up old grievances (Sharf, 2012). References Emre, M. (2010). Cognitive impairment and dementia in Parkinson's disease. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Erwin, J. C. (2004). The classroom of choice: Giving students what they need and getting what you want. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Gupta, A. (2008). Measurement scales used in elderly care. Oxford: Radcliffe Pub. Jallo, J., & Loftus, C. M. (2009). Neurotrauma and critical care of the brain. New York: Thieme. McMeans, J. (2008). Prepare & practice for standardized tests: Language arts. Westminster, CA: Teacher Created Resources. Sharf, R. S. (2012). Theories of psychotherapy and counseling: Concepts and cases. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford Univ. Press. Read More