Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Causes and Effects - Research Paper Example

? Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Introduction All humans experience heartache and pain from time to time. Often such pain is easily overcome, while other times it may take days or even months to feel ‘normal’ again. In some instances, the pain never truly goes away. Pain and other traumatic experiences are a part of life that must be endured. There are some experiences, however, that cannot simply go away with time. They stick with an individual wherever they go. The experiences can haunt people in their dreams, affect their personal and professional lives in numerous ways, and cause even more heartache and pain than ever imagined. Such occurrences, when professional help is often needed to deal with the emotions being felt, are referred to as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). From the outset, it is important to realize that PTSD can affect almost anyone. While it is true that in our modern era of fighting multiple wars many military personnel suffer from the disorder, it is equally likely that its effects can hit any other member or segment of society as well. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder can be triggered by such things as a sexual assault, physical attack, returning from the battlefield, being taken hostage or kidnapped, confinement as a prisoner of war, torture, terrorist attack, severe car accidents, and natural disasters, among others (Foa, Keane, & Friedman, 2000). This paper will deal with the causes and effects of PTSD, examine the diagnosis and treatments of the disorder, and offer plausible suggestions for helping an acquaintance through such a time of need. Important Facts, Figures, and Treatments Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is commonly considered to be male affliction, but statistics do not bear this out. It has been revealed that 60.7% of PTSD victims are male, but 51.2% of women also experience an episode of PTSD during their lifetime as well (Favidi & Yadollahie, 2012, p. 3). Because of this, it is important to understand not only who suffers from PTSD, but why they suffer as well. This will help lead to more effective ways to treat the disorder. Already we know that Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder has various triggers, such as “being taken hostage or kidnapped, confinement as a prisoner of war, torturer, terrorist attack, severe car accidents, and natural disasters” (Favidi & Yadollahie, 2012, p. 2). This is actually just the tip of the iceberg. Any type of trauma can actually lead to PTSD and society needs to be able to help those individuals when such a disorder occurs as a result of one of these tragedies. Researchers and other interested stakeholders have long been interested in determining how best to treat the individual suffering from PTSD. Specifically, the treatment that proves most effective is what everyone is striving for. Favidi and Yadollahie (2012) strongly suggest that PTSD can be best treated if the symptoms for the disorder are discovered quickly and an actual treatment program is quickly prescribed and implemented. This enables people suffering from PTSD to understand early on that they do have a problem and, if they are willing to receive assistance, the effects could theoretically be minimized. It is also important to realize that Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder affects individuals around the globe at different levels. People from ‘Western’ countries, for example, tend to exhibit higher rates of PTSD than those from Asian countries. It is perhaps interesting to note here that Asians actually have the lowest rates of PTSD in the world. China itself has the lowest reported incidence of the disorder of any country that was studied, with only 0.3% of the population reportedly suffering from PTSD at some point in their life. New Zealand does have the highest reported rate of PTSD, with 6.1% of the population experience some form of the disorder at least once during their life (Favidi & Yadollahie, 2012). Not only have researchers discovered that people living in different parts of the world are more susceptible to PTSD than others, but they have uncovered that people working in certain occupations are at higher risks than others as well. Let us consider police officers, firefighters, and ambulance drivers for a moment. While statistics bear out that 4% of the population is likely to experience some type of post-traumatic stress disorder during their lifetime, that figure jumps to 32% for the occupations just mentioned (Favidi & Yadollahie, 2012, p. 6). People working these particular jobs appear to be more at risk of experience symptoms of PTSD due to the tragedies and difficulties that they face on a daily basis. As such, it is critical that once a worker in any of these fields experiences any triggering event, they receive professional care almost immediately and are monitored for the onset of anything related to post-traumatic stress. The implication with these figures is that the individuals in these careers, and others that have high incidences of PTSD related symptoms, should receive early intervention and training in an effort to help them better deal with the stresses of their particular choice of occupation. By intervening early, perhaps individuals will be better prepared to deal with the tragic events they are likely to experience at some point during their career (Favidi & Yadollahie, 2012). Studies are currently underway to determine which types of intervention programs are successful in lowering the percentage of those who end up experiencing some degree of post-traumatic stress disorder. There are certain life experiences that increase the likelihood of developing PTSD as well. Victims of crime, by way of example, are the most likely category of people to illustrate symptoms of the disorder. Depending on the nature of the crime, anywhere from 19% to 75% of victims will experience some level of PTSD following the crime (Favidi & Yadollahie, 2012, p. 7). Many victims of violent crime are female, yet studies have discovered that women often lack adequate resources to deal with PTSD. Many health care professionals focus a great deal of attention on treating male victims of PTSD, yet they fail to remember that females are just about as likely, statistically, to suffer from PTSD as well. It is important to note that women often exhibit signs of PTSD later on then men, primarily because they are often victims of crimes that they are more reluctant to report. This indicates the need for early intervention as well. While it is important to teach females how to avoid becoming a victim of violent crime, it is also important to educate them about what to do in the event they do become a victim. It is important to not only immediately report the crime, but they should be cognizant of the effects of PTSD, learn how to identify the signs, and begin to seek out treatment as soon as possible. Mental health professionals, therefore, need to look closely at females who are victims of crime and evaluate them for PTST. This will ensure that women are not forgotten individuals in the treatment process (Javidi & Yadollahie, 2012, p. 4). In addition, studies have uncovered that, while PTSD can affect people of any age, young adults seem to be particularly affected. This tends to result from the fact that they are more prone to the experiencing the kind of events that trigger episodes of PTSD than other age groups in the general population. Current research is focusing on the young adult age group because 30% of that particular population will experience some form of PTSD during those years of their life (Javide & Yadollahie, 2012, p. 5). Since men and women do tend to experience different PTSD triggering events, various professionals and psychologists need to be better prepared to understand and deal with each type of situation. DSM-IV Diagnostic Criteria for PTSD As with any type of psychological disorder, there are certain criteria that psychologists and other health care professionals look at when diagnosing PTSD. The first indicator that symptoms being experienced by an individual might actually be Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is if the person has experience some type of recent traumatic event. This might involve having experienced, witnessed, or being confronted by death or serious injury to himself or herself or other (APA, 2000). As a result of this experience, the individual may respond with intense fear, helplessness, or horror. It is important to remember that not everyone who experiences a traumatic event, such as previously mentioned, will end up developing PTSD. The precipitating event is simply one factor. It is equally important, however, to realize that now all people who have PTSD will realize it, and many will claim that they feel perfectly fine. As such, it is important to consider and look at other areas of their life as well to determine whether or not the individual is suffering to PTSD. When diagnosing PTSD, psychologists tend to look at symptoms that appear in three distinct clusters, or stages. These are commonly referred to at the re-experiencing, avoidance or numbing, and the hyper aousal clusters (APA, 2000). Each of them typically last for great than one month and can vary in their levels of severity and the extent to which individual behaviors manifest themselves to others. In the end, each of these stages often causes clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning. This means that individuals in each of these clusters will experience difficulty in even carrying on with the most basic functions of daily life, and can feel a great amount of despair. Re-Experiencing It is actually quite normal for a person to re-live traumatic experiences. This is part of what makes us human. When this period of re-experiencing happens continuously, however, there is cause for concern. The DSM-IV advocates that assignation of PTSD to any individual who re-experiences traumatic events over and over for more than one month (APA, 2000). This can manifest itself, initially, through recurring recollections of the event. This entails thoughts processes that the individual simply cannot shake, no matter how hard they try. It affects their focus at home and at work. This is why individual with PTSD can actually threaten the safety of others, for example when driving, because their mind tends to wander back to the event continuously, causing them to lose all focus in their life. Sleep is supposed to relax and refresh us. For the victim of PTSD, however, this could not be further from reality. During the re-experiencing stage, a person who has experienced a traumatic event may frequently relive the experience, or a variation thereof, through their dreams. This makes sleep an unwelcome experience with the individual feeling night after night that they will never again have a peaceful night’s sleep. If this continues for more than 1 month, then the DSM-IV advises psychologists to diagnose the individual with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (APA, 2000). A further indication, according to the DSM-IV, that an individual is in the re-experiencing stage is that they begin acting or feeling like the event was recurring. This is the PTSD version of deja vu. This, in essence, makes them a victim all over again. The sad aspect of this is that the feeling is often continuous. Imagine the rape victim who feels day after day that it is happening once again. They feel helpless and powerless to do anything about it, and their despair only begins to deepen. Likewise, the service member who watched their friend get killed by an explosive device will often re-live that event every day. If that occurs for more than a month, then treatment must given. Individuals cannot withstand that kind of tragedy on a daily basis (APA, 2000). Finally, the DSM-IV will take the position that PTSD is evident in any individual who experiences psychological distress at cues resembling the triggering event (APA, 2000). This means that if a woman was approached in a park and raped, then she may feel that is going to happen again anytime another individual begins to approach her. The feeling of insecurity that follows this belief is often too much to bear, which is why many victims of post-traumatic stress will avoid any type of social situation altogether. In addition, there is danger in having physiological reactivity to cues resembling the event as well. Again, if either of these factors are experienced for more than one month following a triggering event, the PTSD will likely be diagnosed. Avoidance/Numbing When individuals experience a traumatic event, as previously mentioned, they may avoid talking about it. When they do so, they become numb to the situation, and this can create a dangerous situation, which is why avoidance and numbing is mentioned in the DSM-IV. The DSM-IV signifies this clustering by defining the area as an avoidance of stimuli and numbing of general responsiveness indicated by various factors for three or more months. It is helpful to understand what some of the noted factors are, as described in the DSM-IV (APA, 2000). It would be considered normal behavior for individuals to talk with close friends, family members, or health-care professionals about a traumatic event they have experienced. Sometimes, yes, they need time to collect their own feelings and emotions, but eventually most victims will begin to discuss the event. If, however, an individual avoids thoughts, feelings, or conversations about the event for more than three months, they are likely suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. This can also be indicated by the avoidance of activities, places, or people associated with the event for period of greater than three months. Psychologists do look for a period of three months during this cluster because, as mentioned, it takes time for people to begin to discuss the events that have traumatized them so (APA, 2000). Other factors in the avoidance/number cluster include: The inability to recall part of the trauma, a decreasing interest in activities, estrangement from others, a restricted range of affect, or a feeling that their future will be shortened. These are areas that people associate with someone who has experienced a traumatic event can be on the look out for and identify to professionals that are equipped at treating individuals with PTSD (APA, 2000). Hyper Arousal The final cluster, according to DSM-IV, is the hyper arousal stage. This cluster consists of persistent features that are evident for more than two months. Factors during this stage include difficulty sleeping, irritability or outbursts of anger, difficulty concentrating, hyper vigilance, and an exaggerated response to startling situations (APA, 2000). These are mostly behaviors that are outwardly manifested and create awkward social situations for the individual and those closest to them. As such, it is imperative that the person suffering from PTSD be given some space and that others do not react harshly to their outbursts, but rather they show compassion and respect, without smothering them. Therapeutic Intervention While no one ‘cure’ exists for PTSD in every situation, there are some therapeutic interventions that have proven quite effective. It is important to teach patents that PTSD represents a psychobiologics reaction to overwhelming stress (Foa, Keane, & Friedman, 2000). This is not a character flaw or a sign of weakness, so that needs to be made clear to the individual. Many people suffering from PTSD fear that they will be seen as ‘damaged’ or emotionally unstable. They need to be reassured otherwise. In addition, it is important to remember that traumatized patients are notoriously reluctant to seek help, particularly from mental health professionals (Foa, Keane, & Friedman, 2000). For this reason, it is important that other people acquainted with the individual notice the signs of PTSD and are equipped to begin helping as well. To begin to relive the symptoms of PTSD, there are specialized techniques that can be utilized. These techniques are designed to help the patent confront their fears and their current emotional responses to trauma in a more structured format. This is done in such a way that the individual does not feel overwhelmed, but rather enables them to gradually begin to get a better handle on their emotions. The treatment often involves reducing the level of distress associated with memories of the events. Also, the counselor will help the patient to quell any resultant physiological reactions that they might be having and to focus on behavioral outcomes rather than biomedical indices (Foa, Keane, & Friedman, 2000). There are four types of therapy that have shown to be particularly effective in dealing with PTSD. Exposure therapy is designed to help patients confront painful thoughts and feelings. In addition to that, cognitive-behavioral therapy will help individuals with PTSD to process their thoughts and feelings. The interpersonal therapy approach will help patients understand ways in which a traumatic event continue to affect relationships and other aspects of their lives. Finally, group therapy has shown success in helping to reduce the isolation and stigma commonly associated with victims of PTSD (Follette and Ruzek, 1998). Conclusion Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is serious, but it can be overcome. In order to provide the best chance at returning to a sense of normalcy, it is important that the individual explore his or her own thoughts and feelings about the trauma that has been experienced. Beyond this, the person should work through their feelings of guilt, self-blame, and mistrust. Also, it is beneficial to learn how to cope with and control intrusive memories. Finally, victims need to be able to address the problems that PTSD has caused in their life and in their relationships (Arnkoff, Class, & Shapiro, 2002). In the end, it is often beneficial to seek professional help in dealing this disorder. References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders DSM-IV-TR (Fourth ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. Arnkoff, D.B., Class, C. R., & Shapiro, S. J. (2002). Expectations and preferences. In J. C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relationships that work: Therapist contributions and responsiveness to patients (pp. 335-356). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., & Friedman, M.J. (eds.). (2000). Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. The Guilford Press: New York, pp. 162-190. Follette, V. M., Ruzek, J. I., F.R. (eds.). (1998). Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma. The Guilford Press: New York, pp. 162-190. Javidi, H., & Yadollahie, M. (2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder. International Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 3(1), 2-9. Read More