Rationality of Human Beings - Coursework Example

?Summary: How rational can a human decision maker be? Human beings are supposed to be rational animals. Yet the truth is that physiologically, emotions and rationality both have crucial roles to play in decision making. People have different personalities and this has a bearing on the decisions they make. There was a girl and a boy who fell in love with each other. They belonged to two different religions and the girl's religion was very orthodox. Hence the parents of the girl refused to approve of their love affair. When the boy got a decent job, he said to the girl- “let's run away to the city where I work and let's get married.” But the girl replied, “I have been praying to God to change my parents' mind. I have faith that my prayers will yield results. Please wait one more year before we get married.” The boy went to the town to work there. The parents of the girl forced her to marry another person who was similarly orthodox to them and she lived rest of her life like a slave to him. This story illustrates how the girl failed in the test of rational decision making. The rational model of decision making involves at least six major steps- 1. Define the problem, 2. Identify the decision criteria, 3. Allocate weights to the criteria, 4. Develop the alternatives, 5. Evaluate the alternatives and 6. Select the best alternatives. In the above example, it can be seen that the girl was not able to define the problem objectively. She thought that her problem was only a matter of God's will and destiny. Hence she could not arrive at a rational decision. She wrongly identified God as her major decision criterion and gave it undue weight. She did not evaluate the alternatives available as the one that was offered by the boy. Naturally, she stuck to her single solution that was faulty and ended up in a miserable condition. The conventional model of rational decision making itself has many advantages and draw backs. The advantage is that this model is capable of providing an empirical framework for decision making, thereby ensuring uniformity of approach among different managers. The problem can be resolved through a step by step rational decision making process. The decision could be made evaluating the costs involved with different alternatives. Yet, certain errors might also arise in the process. For example, the decision maker might not be having all the relevant information at hand to carry out each of these steps without error. For example, the girl in the above discussed case, did not have enough information to realise that her parents were not going to change their minds and also that God might not come to help in all instances. The subjectivity and biases of the decision maker are often ignored in rational decision making model. In the case study discussed above, for example, the girl had a complex mental bias that was a result of the culture, social conditioning and gendering that she was subject to. There are many theories of rational decision making. Behavioral decision making theory proposes that people have motives that lead to decisions and they can be motivated to exhibit certain desirable behaviors (Reyna and Rivers, 2008) Based on this theoretical model, the girl in the above story can be explained to have taken a decision that is prompted by the socio-cultural influences on her. The Prototype-Willingness model of decision making on the other hand says that if someone shows willingness to follow certain kind of behavior, the possibility of really exhibiting such behavior increases (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). In the case study discussed above, this willingness was lacking and this led to the subsequent events. In the developmental cognitive neuroscience model, it is argued that “A cornerstone of cognitive development is the ability to suppress inappropriate thoughts and actions in favour of goal-directed ones, especially in the presence of compelling incentives.” (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). In the specific case study being considered, “compelling incentives” were present yet the girl was unable to exhibit goal-directed actions and thoughts owing to her cognitive framework that rendered disobeying her parents as inappropriate (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). Here it has to be remembered that cognition has a social context and frame. The developmental social neuroscience framework, on the other hand, presumes that instead of cognitive functions, social and emotional functions are what becomes crucial in decision making (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). The girl in the case study proves this to be true as her responses and actions were social and emotional rather than cognitive. Fuzzy-trace theory of rational decision making says that people often react to situations rather than make decisions (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). This is also related to intuitive model of decision making. An intuitive decision making model involves a subdued rationality behind it, and it is rather a system approach that is followed in it. It delivers a decision in a speedy manner. The rationality of the individual involved will play a subdued role in intuitive decision making but there will be no step by step process. It is rather organic and people often resort to this model in real life. In the case study discussed above, the girl did the same. She did not follow a step by step process but simply depended on her intuition to make the decision. The economic rational model is also there that allows the decision maker concerned even to decide to forcefully bring about the desired outcome that is economical. No ethical issues will bother him/her while applying this model. The girl in the case study was not at all capable of following this model. Scrapbook Any discourse about a rational human being inevitably has to start from the thoughts of the great philosopher, Aristotle. The concept of the rational animal is often attributed to Aristotle. This is rather a misquote. Not exactly what Aristotle said. Yet Aristotle was the first scholar to seriously discuss the concept of rationality. Aristotle talked about the relationship between “correct reason” and “right decision” (Aristotle and Irwin, Book 6, Chapter 2 (4)). Aristotle believed that “to find the true reasoning”, we ought to have the “right sort of character” (Aristotle and Irwin, Book 6, Chapter 2 (4)). Does that mean that reason is subjective? Actually reason does have a subjective shade. Or for a single issue, different paths of reasoning are possible and even some of these paths might even be quite opposite to some other. One can either become frozen at a single position when faced with the responsibility of decision making or start moving. There is always the fear of choosing wrong. Forward movement can be based on weighing the options and choosing. Different people go through this process in different ways. PEOPLE ARE DIFFERENT. Ability to quick decision making and right decision making will ensure our survival. As shown above, not only our brain (mostly correlatd with reason), but our heart (emotion), our wisdom (information and perspective), our courage in some contexts are involved. It is observed that we are not so rational as we think, while making decisions ('Rational Decision Making: Theory Versus Reality', n.d.). Emotional behavior generates in the cortex of the brain ('Rational Decision Making: Theory Versus Reality', n.d.). Prefrontal cortex enables rational decision making ('Rational Decision Making: Theory Versus Reality', n.d.). When prefrontal cortex is damaged emotional stability as well as ability of rational decision making is impaired ('Rational Decision Making: Theory Versus Reality', n.d.). “The heart has its reasons which reason know nothing of” (“Emotion and Rationality in Decision Making”, n.d.). Emotions play a crucial role in our decision making (“Emotion and Rationality in Decision Making”, n.d.) The rational model of decision making is about “how individuals should behave in order to maximize or optimize a certain outcome” (Rao, 2008). Steps in the rational Decision making Model 1. Define the problem 2. Identify the decision criteria 3. Allocate weights to the criteria 4. Develop the alternatives. 5. Evaluate the alternatives 6. Select the best alternatives (Rao, 2008). Defining the problem is important. There needs to have clarity in this regard. To have clarity, the decision maker needs to have complete information that is relevant to the problem and the decision involved. But often, in reality, the decision maker will not be having all the relevant information and this could affect the decision being made. Once problem is defined, decision criteria can be set. The next step is to decide which criteria is more important. This is based on the interests of the decision maker, his/her values, and “personal preferences” Priorities have to be set based on this. The fourth step is to explore whether alternatives are available to the selected options. Here also, there are certain practical problems involved. This step preconceives that the decision maker has the ability to know all the alternatives available. But in reality, the decision maker might not be having the circumstances or ability to know all the possible alternatives. There is also the question whether the decision maker fully know the consequences of each alternative being considered. Each alternative is rated based on its benefits compared to others. This has to be with respect to criteria. Finally, the best alternative is selected. This model assumes that the decision maker has all the necessary time and resources to complete this process in an ideal manner. But in a real life situation, often this might not be case. Merits/demerits of conventional, rational model for decision making Merits The rational model is systematic It provides common empirical framework (Immanuel Elfuntayo, n.d.). It takes into account all the possible steps involved It provides a path to follow to attain optimal results Ensure uniformity among different decision makers Demerits The rational model sees only parts, not the whole It preconceives complete information It ignores the context It is simplistic It is time consuming Examples Decision matrix analysis, Pugh matrix, SWOT analysis, Pareto analysis, Decision trees (Patton, n.d.). Rational decision-making theories Behavioral decision making theory proposes that people have motives that lead to decisions and they can be motivated to exhibit certain desirable behaviors (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). For example, a man was offered an under-paid job in a company that manufactured a uniquely designed biogas plant. The company held the patent of this design. Though the salary was very low, the man accepted the offer because he had plans to learn the technology involved in the design of that biogas plant. After working in the company for 3 years, the man quit the job and acquired a patent for a modified design of the biogas plant that was being made by his previous employer. This is an example of behavioural decision making. The Prototype-Willingness model of decision making on the other hand says that if someone shows willingness to follow certain kind of behavior, the possibility of really exhibiting such behavior increases (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). For example, there was a man who was always talking about whether stealing is a crime or not. He put forth philosophical arguments that said there was no meaning in private property and hence stealing was not objectionable. He also playfully asserted to his friends that he could steal anything without his conscience bothering him. One of his friends became a prison official and many years later, he saw this friend as an inmate of a prison. The man had stolen many cars and had even committed a murder. In the developmental cognitive neuroscience model, it is argued that “A cornerstone of cognitive development is the ability to suppress inappropriate thoughts and actions in favor of goal-directed ones, especially in the presence of compelling incentives.” (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). Here it has to be remembered that cognition has a social context and frame. There was a company executive who was very competent and was in the good books of his company by all means. He was offered a huge bribe by a competing company for giving them the marketing and expansion plans of the company prepared for the upcoming 5 years. Initially, the company executive felt quite tempted by the offer as the amount offered could make the rest of his life completely secure. But on afterthought, he felt that by serving his own company in a loyal manner, he could make it to the top position of the company in five to ten years. This would earn him comfortable financial security as well as a good reputation in the industry and the society as a whole. Hence he decided not to cheat upon his company. Eventually, he was made the CEO of the company in eight years’ time and became a very successful and respected citizen. This is a typical example of developmental cognitive neuroscience model of rational decision making. The developmental social neuroscience framework, on the other hand, presumes that instead of cognitive functions, social and emotional functions are what become crucial in decision making (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). For example, a youngster was in love with his class mate and was about to marry her. He used to visit her at her house. The girl was living with her aunt who was a widow. The aunt was a young woman who had to flee her country as she was married to a man from another religion. The society in her native country was highly orthodox and could not accept her marrying a boy from another religion. After having lived with her husband for 4 months, she lost him in a car accident. As she could not attain a resident visa, she was about to be deported back to her country after the death of her husband. The youngster got emotionally involved in the tragedy of the widow. Given the social circumstances that compelled her to go back to her mother country where a hostile society awaited her, he decided to marry her so that she can stay back. He even parted with his beloved while making this decision. Here, the cognitive decision might have been to keep away from the widow and marry his friend but the emotional and social factors made him decide otherwise. This approves of the developmental social neuroscience framework of decision making. Fuzzy-trace theory of rational decision making says that people often react to situations rather than make decisions (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). This is also related to intuitive model of decision making. Decision here is made based on “gist”s of simple basic information (Reyna and Rivers, 2008). An example for this could be the famous story of the race between hare and the tortoise. Hare made his decision to sleep on the gist that was known to him, namely, a tortoise can never win a race with a hare. He was simply reacting to the situation that he was much speedier than the tortoise. An intuitive decision making model involves a subdued rationality behind it, and it is rather a system approach that is followed in it. It delivers a decision in a speedy manner. The rationality of the individual involved will play a subdued role in intuitive decision making but there will be no step by step process. It is rather organic and people often resort to this model in real life. An example of intuitive decision making can be seen in the story of a woman who got stranded on an unfamiliar road at night as she was travelling on a job assignment and made a wrong turn. She felt quite unsafe in the strange circumstances as the place was deserted. Intuitively, she decided to leave her car, climb a tree and spend the night in that manner. As a child, she had many cashew trees in her courtyard, which were easy to climb and sit upon comfortably with widely open branches. Driving into that place, she had earlier spotted a few such trees nearby. So she climbed one of them and spent the night there. When, the next day, she was rescued by a villager, he told her that she decided right in spending the night on a tree. This was so because the place was nearby a jungle and elephants used to wander around. The economic rational model is also there that allows the decision maker concerned even to decide to forcefully bring about the desired outcome that is economical. No ethical issues will bother him/her while applying this model. There was an old woman who refused to be treated for her diseases by a doctor as she believed that God alone has the right to decide whether one remains ill or healthy. The son of this woman saw that the woman was in a critical condition and if proper medical attention was given to her, the disease could turn fatal. Hence, he lied to her that they were visiting a friend of his and took her to a doctor friend who saw patients at his house. Without making it known to the woman that she was seeing a doctor, the doctor prescribed some medicines, and through the woman’s regular food, the son imparted them. The woman was cured. In this case, the son was adopting the economic rational model of decision making where no ethical issues like his mother’s autonomy or her rights as a patient bothered him. His only concern was to bring about a desired result. Alternative scenarios to the rational model available to the decision analyst Intuitive decision making models- This model is also rational in a sense, though the rationality behind the decision remains often hidden. This model can give a speedy decision. "A good plan, executed now, is better than a perfect plan next week." (Patton, n.d.) Dr. Gary Klein says, people make intuitive decisions “90% of the time” (cited in Patton, n.d.). Recognition primed decision making model- This model is based on the ability of the decision maker to identify patterns for success, owing to his/her experience in the matter. (Patton, n.d.). The theory of bounded rationality by Herbert Simon Simon (1972) said- rationality is a “style of behavior that is appropriate to the achievement of given goals” (p.161) In a rational decision making model, when risk and uncertainty are included, there emerges the model of bounded rationality. This is also related to the fact that the decision maker has not enough information on all the possible alternatives. The “complexity in the cost function or other nevironmental constraints” also bind rational decisions (Simon, 1972). Solution- simplify and structuralize as much as possible so that optimization can happen. From an economics angle Phenomena, mechanisms and linkages are involved in economic decision making model (Simon, 1997, p.20). Rational-economic decision model- “prescriptive rather than descriptive” (Lewis, Goodman, Fandt, Michlitsch, 2006, p.155). “Rational, systematic and logical” decision making (Lewis, Goodman, Fandt, Michlitsch, 2006, p.155). The assumptions in this model are, 1) all relevant information is available, 2) “agreed-on objectives and list of alternative courses of action”, 3) decision makers are completely loyal to bring about company's benefit, 4) “no ethical dilemmas” are ever involved (Lewis, Goodman, Fandt, Michlitsch, 2006, p.155). Reference List Aristotle and Irwin, T. 2000. The Nichomachean ethics, Hacket Publishing, Amsterdam. 'Emotion and rationality in decision making', http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8Csytgjcro [Accessed 12 March 2013]. Elfuntayo, I. n.d., 'Benefits of rational decision making model', http://ezinearticles.com/?Benefits-of-a-Rational-Decision-Making- Model&id=4806669 [Accessed 12 March 2013]. Lewis, P.S., Goodman, S.H., Fandt, P.M. and Michlitsch, J. 2006. Management: Challenges for tomorrow's leaders, South Western College Publishing, Cincinnatti. Patton, Jr., General George S. n.d. Decisions! Decisions!, http://www.decision-making-confidence.com/decision-making- models.html [Accessed 10 March 2013]. Rao, S.R. 2008. 'The rational model of decision making', http://www.citeman.com/2869-the-rational-model-of-decisions- making.html [Accessed 10 March 2013]. 'Rational decision making: theory versus reality', http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8Csytgjcro [Accessed 10 March 2013]. Reyna, V.F. and Rivers, S.E. 2008. 'Current theories of risk and rational decision making', Development Review, vol.28, no.1, pp.1-11, http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/opre640/partxiii.htm#rmoelhumbehave [Accessed 14 March 2013]. Simon, H. 1972. Theories of bounded rationality, In Decision and Organization, C.B. McGuire and Roy Radner (eds.), North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam Read More