Cognitive and Learning Theories - Term Paper Example

? Cognition and Learning Our senses capture the exact of the world around us and store this information in working memory so that the mind can analyze it. This statement is at variance, meaning, generally false. Actually, there are many points to consider coming up with this verdict. Essentially, the word “exact” implies an absolute claim. In reality, our senses cannot capture the “exact state” of the world around us. Even our eyes cannot capture everything on the visual field. Embedded in the retina is the fovea centralis, which is considered having the most vivid visual sensation. Although we may see other objects on the side of our visual field, we still need to turn our heads to that side in order to see “exactly” objects on that direction. The Spotlight metaphor tells us that our eyes need to move at a certain angle in order to perceive the rest of information in the environment (Anderson, 2004). This means that the visual senses cannot attend to the whole picture of the environment, instead focus on some aspects of it in order to process the stimulus in the brain. In reality, the information from our senses does not necessarily enter into the process of interpretation in the brain. Only that information with relevance and meaning can be processed. This information, in fact, requires a considerable amount of attention to become a working memory. Cognitive Theories Sensory Memory (Sperling, 1960). According to Sperling, information from our senses (sensory memory) enters the process of storage and interpretation once it successfully held our attention for a period of time. Determining which information will be stored and interpreted depends on a variety of factors including its relevance, semantics and meaning to the person. Therefore, not every stimulus is stored into the succeeding working memory. Working Memory Theory (Baddeley, 1986). Baddeley proposed his working memory theory explaining the presence of an articulatory loop (in which material is rehearsed) and a visuospatial sketchpad (in which images are rehearsed) and that they are controlled by a central executive mechanism. Filter Theory (Broadbent, 1958). According to Broadbent, sensory information needs to reach a threshold amount in order to be processed into working memory. Because we have only a limited capacity to process information, this filter is designed to prevent the information-processing system from becoming overloaded.  The inputs not initially selected by the filter remain briefly in the sensory buffer store, and if they are not processed they decay rapidly.  Broadbent assumed that the filter rejected the non-shadowed or unattended message at an early stage of processing. Attenuation Theory (Treisman, 1964). The selection on which stimulus is subjected to analysis depends on how the person attaches meaning, relevance, and semantics on it. This theory elaborates on semantic selection criteria that are possible for attenuated messages or otherwise. Unattended sitmuli do not necessarily become filtered, rather attenuated so as not to interfere with the intended stimuli. Feature- Integration Theory (Treisman and Gelade, 1980). The storage process of information into working memory requires the attended objects to form patterns to survive the binding problem, or the specific pattern that the brain uses to put scattered features together. Studies Experiments by Cherry (1953) and Moray (1959) exemplifies that although the environment has an overwhelming auditory stimulus, our ears cannot capture the “exact state” of the environment. Thus, when we are talking within a small group of people in the middle of a noisy environment, we still could hear and understand the people we intentionally want to listen. Only the intended stimulus reached the interpretation process in the brain. In an experiment by Sperling (1960), subjects were asked to stare into a blank screen. Then 12 letters were flashed in one-twentieth of a second. The subjects were asked to state the letters they had seen. Although the subjects did claim that they had seen around 12 letters, they fail to name it. Sperling hypothesized that the entire letter-array figure registered briefly in sensory memory, but the figure disappeared too quickly for subjects to “see” all the letters. Regardless if the eyes did capture the “exact” state of the screen, storage of this information into the working memory failed. To show that sensory information can sometimes, if not most of the times, provide inaccurate information, Treisman and Schmidt (1982) conducted an experiment in which subjects were first asked to attend to various colored letters both in and out of the visual field. When asked, subjects reported elements which were actually not present (as cited in Anderson, 2004). In order to demonstrate that sensory information still need to be processed to a working memory to be interpreted and recalled, a parallel study by Shepard and Teghtsoonian (1961) presented participants with a long series of three-digit numbers and asked them to identify repeated numbers all the while varying the amount of numbers in between repeats. Repeated numbers that were closer together had a much higher likelihood of being remembered. Some numbers were remembered that appeared further apart and later on in the list but these likely made it in to long-term memory (as cited in Anderson, 2004). 2. The more practice you can pack into a given time period the better. This statement is at variance, meaning false. Although it is better to increase the frequency of encoding information into the working and long- term memory by doing more practice, “packing” it in a given period of time does not do any good. Actually, there should be a time span in between practices while increasing the frequency of practice to stimulate repeated encoding of information. The time component is essential in order to process information into long- term memory. Although by virtue of recency, people may find it beneficial to study a few hours before an examination. However, this information cannot be stored in long- term memory and disappears once the exam is over, thus compromising the whole learning experience. There is no question whether more practicing can improve learning, but there should be enough time given to accomplish the whole process of storage into long- term memory. Cognitive Theories The Power of Learning. This theory states that memory can be enhanced by frequent practicing and recalling of specific information. However, it is not suggested that this enormous amount of practice need to be “packed” in a given period of time. To store information into long- term memory, there should be enough time of practice and recalling. Stages of Skill Acquisition (Fitts and Posner, 1967). Automaticity is the ultimate aim of restoring information in the brain. This means that once a certain cognitive memory is stored and retrieved tremendously by frequent practice in longer periods of time, the associated task becomes automatic. In the first stage called cognitive stage, a series of facts are committed to a memory. These facts will then be elaborated in the second stage, called the associative stage. “The general effect of practice is to reduce the central cognitive component of information processing. When one has practiced the central cognitive component of a task so much that the task requires little or no thought, we say that the task is automatic” (as cited in Anderson, 2004). Indeed, time is needed to master a skill. Neural growth. The essential component of learning in adults can be associated with the continuous neural growth. This explains why adults still have the capacity to learn new things although neural growth is thought to be stopped at this point. Neural growth can be stimulated by frequent practice. However, neural growth does not happen in an instant. Frequent practice on a longer period of time is needed to stimulate this growth. Studies In the study of Anderson, Reder and Simon (1998), they concluded that the basic reason why Asian students have higher performance in Mathematics is the time they spend to practice. It appears that they spend twice the amount of time compared to their US counterparts. Thus, the amount of time spent on studying the subject has a significant factor rather than the frequency of practice alone (as cited in Anderson, 2004). Simon and Chase (1973) demonstrated the importance of time in learning, in addition to the frequency of practice, among World Chess Masters. It has been reported that to become a Chess Master, around 50,000 to 100,000 hours must be spent on practicing. With this huge period, it is impossible to compact it in one or two sitting, no matter how rigorous the training could be (as cited in Brandsford, 2000). Singley and Anderson (1989) stressed out the relative equivalence of time and material length to ensure storage into the long- term memory level (as cited in Brandsford, 2000). 3. Transfer can be improved by helping students actively monitor their learning strategies and resources. This statement is consistent with the readings, meaning, it is generally true. Involving the students in the process of learning, rather than simply giving inputs enhances transfer of learning in a new context or setting. This metacognitive approach actually helps learners to take a personal drive on the way and speed they most learn. Learning is especially enhanced when there is an individualized touch on the topics to be learned. When such approach is utilized, people usually give their personal meanings and interpretations, thus enhancing understanding and retention of the subject matter (Brandsford, 2000). Meanwhile, it is true that people have different ways of learning. Some people learn more when presented with visual stimuli like pictures, while others learn more by sounds and voices. Therefore, letting people manage the way they learn by helping them monitor their learning strategies is an efficient way to improve transfer. Cognitive Theories Metacognition. This is the individual capacity to monitor the level of understanding and decide when that understanding is not fully developed (Brandsford, 2000). Actually, the principle of active learning is derived from this theory. Active learning involves things such as self-assessment, reflection on what works or needs improving and an ability to make sense of things. In this way, people gain insight on how they can be unique learners with their own learning style (Brandsford, 2000). Thus, transfer of acquired knowledge into other settings can be easier for people with this type of approach. Procedural facilitation. Sometimes, an instructor is needed to facilitate learning of a person. In this type of learning, people are prompted to think and reflect on activities. In addition, a collaborative environment exists when people reflect on each other aside from the instructor, thus increasing the transferability of knowledge. Studies A comparative study by Scardamalia and Bereiter (1991) evaluated the teaching strategies of three different teachers. When asked to create a multimedia presentation, the three classes were given different instructions. Teacher A was goal-directed and instructed the students to simply produce work through any number of activities. Teacher B was also goal- directed but provided some extent of autonomy to students. Teacher C was more particular in turning over the learning activity to the students. In fact, they had the opportunity to self- assess and recognized that there are many ways to accomplish the project. The students of Teacher C used initiative and individualized ways of learning and therefore have the chances to use the knowledge into other contexts (as cited in Brandsford, 2000). Another study by Carraher, Carraher, and Schliemann (1986) studied how the Brazilian school children struggled to perform mathematical operations at school similar to what they use as street vendors. Although it must be expected that these children know how to compute prices as they were already exposed as street vendors, the children were confused because they were taught of the operations as a single context. Thus, they were having a difficulty in transferring their acquired knowledge into a different context (as cited in Anderson, 2004). 4. It is a good idea to learn material in the same context in which you will be tested. This statement is consistent with the readings. It is indeed a good idea to be tested in the same context that people learned the material. Actually, contexts can be physical (internal and external) or emotional. These are associated with memories because people tend to remember the environment and their feelings at the time of learning when they are taking the test. In fact, “people show better memory if their external contexts and internal states match at study and test” (Anderson, 2004). Cognitive Theories The Encoding Specificity Principle explains the relative congruence of a situational condition encoded as part of a particular type of event. It is a direct result of encoding context effects. “Something is remembered best when the remembering situation matches the way something was encoding originally” (Tulving and Thompson, 1973). Mood congruence. Aside from the physical context, the mood also influences the encoding and retrieving of information. Likewise, it is easier to remember during the test when the mood is similar to the time that the information is stored in the long-term memory (Anderson, 2004). Studies An ingenious research by Smith, Glenberg, and Bjork (1978) in Michigan examined the difference of scores of students who had been subjected into a test after being given paired associates in two different settings. The paired associates were given in two consecutive days. On the first day, the setting was in a windowless room and taught by a neatly dressed professor. Also, the paired associates were shown on a slide show. On the second day, the setting was in a small room with windows opening to the outside. The same professor wore jeans and flannel shirt and the paired associates were given in a tape recorder. During the test, half of the participants were assigned into a different location. The recall rate in the same setting was 59% compared to 46% in the other setting, regardless of visual or verbal delivery. Thus, the context setting has a significant impact on memory in a testing environment (as cited in Anderson, 2004). Similarly, the influence of context on memory was also tested by Godden and Baddeley (1975) among divers. The two settings were on the beach and in the water. They tested the divers’ recall of words in these two environments. Results showed improvements in memory storage and retrieval when tested and learned on the same context setting (as cited in Anderson, 2004). 5. When we forget something we knew and could recall yesterday, it is because we may have inadvertently stored the item in short-term memory. This statement is at variance with the readings. It is wrong to say that information is inadvertently stored in the short- term memory. The recall process does not operate that way. The true state of affairs is that to recall something means to retrieve information stored from the long- term memory into the working memory. In this way, the information is carried into the individuals’ awareness. If the information did not pass the long- term memory, then there is no chance that it can be recalled. Thus the sentence is misleading. On the first part of the sentence, it assumes that the information passed through the long- term memory (because of the word “recall”). On the second half of the sentence, it implies that the information was stored in the short- term memory to be recalled, in which by any means cannot happen. On the other hand, the process of forgetting is explained in two ways. It is either due to the decay process or proactive and retroactive interference. Cognitive Theories Power Law of Forgetting (Wixted and Ebbesen, 1991). This law explains that retention of information diminishes through time if not being used or rehearsed (as cited in Anderson, 2004). Interference. Interference explains that certain activities or any other information may result to forgetting the previously learned information, or interfere with learning new information. There are two types involved. If prior learning interferes with our ability to recall the newer information, it is called proactive interference. Conversely, retroactive interference happens when the more recent information interferes with recalling the previously learned information. Decay. Decay adapts the idea that certain neuronal synapses involved in creating a memory gradually disintegrate and causes memory loss. However, it denies the idea that there are chances that we cannot recall certain information but suddenly remember it perfectly at another point in time. Trace Strength. Traces of memories are formed when we learn something. This trace has a relative amount of strength that dictates whether how long it takes to be stored in the long- term memory so it can be recalled. Considerable amount of practice and time span may aid in the strengthening of the traces. The traces gradually loses its strength through time especially when not in use. Studies Bahrick (1984) designed an experiment to prove that even with practice, time will still cause a loss of memory. Participants were examined for memory of Spanish. He compared the ability of the participants who just completed their high and college with those who completed with some 50 years ago. The results showed decay in knowledge when there is already an increase of the length of time since taking classes (as cited in Anderson, 2004). In an experiment to demonstrate decay of memory over time, Squire and Slater (1985) observed a steady decline of memory of television shows and winning racehorses among the subjects (as cited in Smyth et al., 2000). References Anderson, John R. (2000). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishing. Baddeley Alan. D. (1986). Working Memory. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Brandsford, John D. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School (Expanded ed.). Washington: National Academy Press. Broadbent, D. (1958). Perception and Communication. London: Pergamon Press. Cherry, E. Colin (1953). Some Experiments on the Recognition of Speech, with One and with Two Ears. Journal of Acoustic Society of America, 25 (5): 975–979. Moray, N. P. (1959). Attention in dichotic listening: Affective cues and the influence of instructions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 11, 56–60. Smyth, Mary M., Alan F. Collins, Peter E. Morris, and Philip Levy. (2000). Cognition in Action (2nd ed.). East Sussex: Psychology Press. Sperling, George (1963). A model for visual memory tasks. Human Factors, 5, 19–31. Treisman, A., 1964. Selective attention in man. British Medical Bulletin, 20, 12-16. Treisman, A. M., & Gelade, G. (1980). A feature integration theory of attention. Cognitive psychology, 12, 97-136. Tulving, E., & Thompson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373. Read More