Principles of Gestalt, Piaget, Tolman, and Banduras Theory - Research Paper Example

?Cognitive Theories: Psychology Research Paper Cognitive Theories: Psychology Research Paper 0 submitted) Cognitive Theories: Psychology Research Paper Introduction The goal of every parent is to have children who function adaptively in his environment to be an asset to the family and to the society in general. With this, parents transmit their values and standards to serve as a core channel to which the child may develop and form his own behavior. Parents may model their behaviors that are considered to contribute to the child’s welfare because it is believed that children learn through observation and imitation. But not every child behaves the way parents wanted them to be. Some children might display a behavior that is different from the others. These differences in behavior were explained in theories like classical and operant conditioning, symbolic interaction, frustration-aggression theory, and many other theories of learning. However, most experts agree that these theories are not enough to explain such differences because the cause and effect of the behavior were studied separately. The discussion of the cognitive theory will unlock some answers to this. Along this line, the principles and contributions of the Gestalt theory, Piaget, Tolman, and Bandura’s theory believed to impact on the behavior of a person will be explored. Included is how prior experience is used and how permanent changes in behavior occurs in accordance to cognitive theory together with their application in a day care facility, school and home. Discussion Principles of Gestalt, Piaget, Tolman, and Bandura’s theory Although there had been many issues regarding Gestalt idea, it paved the way to other theories in the field of perception and thinking. It further impacted on the ideas of Piaget, Tolman and Bandura. Its principle is situated on the contention that perception of an object goes beyond of the actual happening. What is perceived is a part of the whole. Meaning, to analyze certain phenomena is to understand the whole pattern and not only a part. In doing so is for the brain to follow set of rules when presented with a stimulus. These set of rules will act as organizers of sensation so that the stimuli will have a meaningful pattern. For instance, to view a photo is for the person to combine elements such as colors, texture, shape, and other elements all together to form the whole image rather than to separate looking at each element. The elements employed on the photo are perceived in relation to the whole picture thus proponents of Gestalt theory states that “the whole is more than the sum of its part” (Krebs, & Blackman, 1988). The principles employed in the set of rules include figure ground, similarity, closure, proximity, simplicity, and continuity. Figure ground is looking at the object through its background that serves to support the main figure. The main image should stand out against the background with more details on it. Similarity is grouping the same configuration to belong together. In an image with two similar shades, darker shades tend to be put together and so with lighter ones to decipher images. Closure is the filling in of the incomplete parts of the figure. Although, the picture seems complete, as a viewer, we tend to complete missing parts or open edges to view it wholly. Proximity tends to offer a viewer to group elements together that are near or close. As a result, we view fewer groups instead of several patterns. Simplicity dictates the viewers to look at figures simply even if it is made from complex shapes. Continuity is use to view a figure from a continuous path so that it could form a pattern that makes sense. Gestalt in relation to learning demonstrates that children slowly learn these principles and adopt them in their perception. It also applies to adults for them to organize stimuli into meaningful perception. Piaget’s stages of development are based on two aspects to include the process to know and the stages involved to acquire such ability (Huitt, & Hummel, 2003). In this same article, it stated that the interest of Piaget on how the individual adapts to his environment is controlled through a process referred to as a schema which are organized patterns of thoughts and actions. Schemes guide the organism’s interaction with his environment where actions are designated, repeated, and applied to new situations. For instance, an infant who is born with primitive reflex uses it to understand his world to acquire knowledge. Most often, this happens in the sensorimotor stage but not limited to this stage alone. As the infant acquires new schemas, his cognition is developed further to become more complex to involve assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is a process where the infant incorporates new experiences to his existing schema as evident in an infant to suck almost everything given him while accommodation creates change to the old schema to be able to adapt which is also reflected in an infant’s change of facial expression as he learns the bad taste of toys. From here, the infant will learn that not everything could be sucked or eaten. This may change their fundamental understanding of the environment. Every time a schema is reorganized, it may bring about equilibrium between the environment and the understanding of the world. These processes are obviously observable in Piaget’s stages of cognitive development which are arranged in hierarchy to start from sensorimotor, to the pre-operational, to concrete operational, and finally to formal operational stage. Tolman’s purposive behaviorism involves a principle that involves two aspects; learning can occur even in the absence of reinforcement and behavior could be misleading to base what was learned by the individual. Learning depends on the goal of the person. For example, if the goal of the student is to pursue his education to master level, he is motivated to go on even without the reward of money, promotion or recognition. He also gave a distinction between performance and learning. According to him, performance could be observed while learning might not be revealed but it does not mean that the person did not learn at all. Learning could only be evident if the person is motivated to show it. Bandura’s observational learning is grounded on the principle of observation and imitation. However, before one could successfully imitate another’s behavior, he has to pass through processes of observation. First, the observer must give attention to the behavior he wants to imitate for him to appreciate the behavior. Then he has to retain what he had observed even if the model is gone. With this, the observer has to code such behavior to be stored in her memory. To put the behavior into practice is the reproduction. In this stage, the observer attempts to reroduce the behavior modeled. The repetition of the behavior sometimes is successful but in other occasions, it needs practice or motivation. The success of reproduction of the modeled behavior depends on the availability of the skill to pay attention, retain and be motivated. Contributions of Piaget, Tolman and Bandura The three experts contributed much in the development of the cognitive theory. Of particular concern is the improvement they made of the Gestalt theory. Piaget widened the idea of Gestalt with his contribution in studying the behavior of children as a whole. It gave a different perspective of studying behavior of children separate from the earlier theories that created a new field of inquiry in the field of cognitive development (Flavell, 1996). Tolman, on the other hand added in the cognitive development with his T- maze experiment of rats. He refuted the proposal of Thorndike and Hull regarding the stimulus response behavior. Tolman believed that the individual does not only learn through stimulus response method but continue to do so even without stimulus which means that action depends on what the person wanted to achieve. Although Bandura’s concept is based on imitation, the ability to process learning through observation contributed in the idea of cognitive theory. Other legacy of Piaget, Bandura, and Tolman is in the field of Education. In the study of Hardin (2010), Bandura mentioned that teachers function in a communal system where one should not be isolated from the others. Such notion is the greatness of Gestalt theory. The study further mentioned that Bandura provided them with the framework they could work to be a vibrant community if positive relationship among students and teachers, student learning, and personal improvement are to be considered. In addition, Bandura’s theory is used in the teaching methodology by teachers in teaching special children like the autistics. His cognitive social approach makes the experience and learning of this group to be more meaningful. Just like Bandura, Piaget also contributed much in education most especially in elementary and preparatory level. With the principles of his theory, children are guided to be able to organize and adapt. The concept of play to be incorporated during the pre-operational and concrete operational had contributed much in determining the normal cognitive growth of a child (Santrock, & Yussen, 1984). Tolman also influenced educational system with his cognitive mapping idea. His work is more appreciated in the vocational school where students may create an outline as they learn skills. The Use of Prior Experience The cognitive theory made use of prior experience in explaining how people learn by observing them to figure out how their behavior is structured. The result of the observation is use as a basis to explain behavior of other individuals with the same situation. To cognitive theorists, they could construct concepts from prior experience to explain learning of people. Without which, they cannot be able to come up with their own theorists. This is likened to a situation where a painter has to paint a draft first before he could come up with the concept he wanted to show his viewers. Piaget had spent many years of observing children in their natural habitat before he finally formulated his concept of why and how children behave the way they do. Prior experience to Tolman likewise served as the basis in improving existing theories authored by the others by adding a different point of view. Tolman added new knowledge with his experiment to predict how rats behave with and without reinforcement. Such added perspective points to the notion that prior experience serves as building blocks to refine the already existing idea even if such change is accompanied with complex restructuring of the concepts. Bandura likewise used prior experience to compare result of his experiment with the behavior of one group or individual he wanted to infer information. Cognitive theorists consider prior experience as a powerful tool for scientists (Roschelle, 1995). Permanent Changes in Behavior According to Cognitive Theory Permanent changes in behavior according to cognitive theory occur when there is learning that took place. The acquisition of knowledge is the most prominent aspect that may cause change in behavior because other aspects may automatically follow. As the person learns, new knowledge is acquired in addition to what the person knows before the learning. This may now improve the skills of the person as he lives his life in his environment. The person may now display a different opinion as a result of what is learned. With this, the person’s attitude is modified and may display a change in his behavioral pattern. The proponents of cognitive theory further added that the cognitive area is the first to react when the person has to change his behavior. Psychomotor comes next as a result of the development of concepts and ideas. The affective part which has something to do with the formation of values and attitude is the last to cause change. This sequence of learning only proves that all components must come into play to cause permanent change. If one is lacking, change would not be permanent but will last for only a short period of time. For example, even if the person had acquired knowledge and skill on how to handle anger from training, if he does not apply it would be futile. Over all, experience promotes permanent change. Application of Cognitive Theory in Day care, School, and Home Cognitive theory has been applied in several settings. Many find it helpful in day care facilities, in schools, and at home. Piaget’s concept of play is mostly applied in child care facility because it is believe to help the child adjust to his new environment other than the home. Play enhances imagination, thinking, and language development essential for learning at a young age where environment of the child is still expanding. For instance, a child who attends a day care schooling trying to imitate the actions of a teacher while singing a song taught during their play period is displaying his ability to adapt to his classmates, teacher, classroom setting, and his environment as a whole. The role of the teacher then in this setting is to act as a facilitator to provide appropriate indoor and outdoor games conducive for their age. Since among the tenet of Bandura’s theory includes modeling, students do not only learn from direct instructions and performance but behaviors that their teacher reinforces or models are imitated by them too. This is because learning is basically a social event. Whatever, is observed by students from their environment is likely to be copied. To facilitate a positive aspect of socialization in school is for the teacher to incorporate cooperative learning activities at a regular basis. For example, schools should include in their syllabus activities that may encourage group or class participation. This may help maladjusted individuals, to include solving drop outs, bullying, and other related school problems who find the premise of the school boring. Thus, educators and administrators of schools find cognitive theory useful to plan their programs for quality learning to take place. Radhakrishna and Saxena (2006) in their article mentioned that apart from good teaching method and curriculum design, relationship with students and teachers play an important role in a distance learning program. This shows that socialization as pointed by Bandura is essential in school whether in campus or off campus. Tolman’s goal directed concept is applied in schools too. When students go with the school’s vision, goals and objectives, the idea of goal directed behavior is being applied. For instance, students who wanted to earn a degree attend classes at a regular basis and meet requirements. This is in unison with goal of the school to provide education. The action of the student is obvious in his goal directed behavior but not for any other reasons. Tolman’s cognitive mapping is also applied in school when a student tries to paint an outline in his mind how to re do the skill as the instructor is finished. Example of this is when students are asked to do a return demonstration on bed making. As the instructor is doing with her lecture and demonstration on bed making, students on the other hand are trying to remember every step mentioned. In the event that they will perform a return demonstration, a map is ready to guide them redo what was demonstrated. Cognitive theory is not confine in schools and day care centers alone but more apparently in homes. Researches had proven that almost all children learn their behavior at home thus people always say that how the child behaves outside his home is the how he was reared by his family. Families with environment conducive for children to grow and learn may have children who may demonstrate positive behavior while families who always fight may have children who are aggressive. For instance, a parent who helps neighbors in need by giving dole out clothes or money is captured by the child through observation and carries the same attitude. Conclusion Although cognitive theory has its own limitations and inadequacies, it proves to play a major role in the explanation of a person’s behavior. Thus, it is applied in day care, school, and in home settings. Considering its principles and the contributions of Piaget, Bandura, and Tolman prove to be helpful in understanding behavior and its improvements as it undergo changes with learning. Sources Cited Flavell, J., ( 1996). Piaget’s legacy. Psychological science. Vol. 7. No. 4. Pp 200-203. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/pss/40062945. on July 16, 2011. Hardin, J., (2010 ). A Study of Social Cognitive Theory: The Relationship between Professional Learning Communities and Collective Teacher Efficacy in International School Settings. Education Resources Information Center. Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Retrieved from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html on July 15,2011. Krebs, D., & Blackman, R., (1988). Psychology. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich publisher. Florida. Roschelle, J., (1995). Learning in interactive environment: Prior knowledge and new experience. Institute of Inquiry copyright. Retrieved from http://www.exploratorium.edu/ifi/resources/museumeducation/priorknowledge.html. on July 16, 2011. Radhakrishna, G., and Saxena, A., (2006). Application of cognitive dissonance theory to reduce dropouts in distance education system. PDFcast.org. Santrock, J., & Yussen, S., (1984). Children and adolescents: A developmental perspective. Brown publishers. Dubuque. Iowa. Read More