Human Development from Conception to Death - Research Paper Example

? Life Span Development Life Span Development Introduction From the time people are first given birth to, to the time they die, they are constantly developing and changing. Some of the changes people go through are as a result of personal choices and chance incidents. However, a vast majority of these life stages and changes that people undergo are because of their common psychological, as well as biological heritage, as human beings. Life span topics are designed to offer people a brief summary of the essential developmental stages, which human beings pass. These stages include being conceived, infancy, teenage years, adulthood and old age (Baltes, 2010). Along these stages, humans learn how to communicate, use their bodies, form relationships, as well as to associate with others. We also learn how to work with and love others. Knowledge regarding lifespan development is essential since it acts as the grounds upon which our life issues sit. For instance, if people fail to master how to get dates as a teenager, then they may, in the future, find themselves with problems of social anxieties as adults. If people were not properly nurtured during the infancy stage, then they might have difficulties trusting others with regards to adult relationships. Knowing something regarding how individuals develop over time assists us to place our issues and illnesses into context, and also suggest means that these problems could be fixed (Bjorklund, 2009). This paper will examine changes comprising of motor skills along with other psycho-physiological processes. They include cognitive, developmental areas, conceptual understanding, social, emotional and finally personality development. It will incorporate various theories in trying ti understand lifespan development. A lot of theoretical perspectives try explain development. Among these prominent theories include Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory, Albert’s Social Learning Theory and the Ecological Systems Theory among others (Bjorklund, 2009). Some of the key areas of research include cognitive development, social and emotional development and finally physical development. Cognitive development mainly tackles the ways in which infants develop, acquire and use mental abilities such as memory, problem solving skills and language (Hopson, 2006). Going through numerous researcher findings, it is true to say that Piaget was one of leading psychologists to study and come up with the cognitive abilities. Social development, on the other hand, studies how humans develop emotional and social competencies (Clarke, 2011). For instance, they examine how toddlers form friendships, how they develop identities and how they interpret and cope with emotions. It is, therefore, vital for research, in this field, to comprise of the relationship between cognitive or cognition development along with social behavior. Finally, physical development deals with the physical maturation of a human’s body until it attains the adult structure. Even though, physical growth is a regular experience, all children differ extremely in the timing of their development spurts (Knowles, 2007). Studies should, therefore, be done to analyze how the differences in these timings reflect on and affect other variables of developmental psychology. Developmental psychology should employ a lot of research techniques used in other fields of psychology. Nevertheless, children and infants should not be tested in the same manner as adults since infants and adults differ in almost everything, psychologically. Pre-natal Development Prenatal development interests almost every psychologist who investigates early psychological development (Lerner, 2002). Human senses develop mostly during this stage. It is at this stage that a fetus can see and hear. Sense of touch also develops at this point of life. A majority of the brain’s neurons are also developed at this stage. Therefore, babies are conceived with some sense of taste, odor and sound preferences, but they are largely associated to their mother’s environment. If a child does not develop these traits while in the mother’s womb, he or she might have problems in the future relating to his or her senses. A number of reflexes also develop during the prenatal stage (Bornstein, 2005). However, these reflexes are vestigial and have restricted use in early human life. Therefore, people should not worry when a newly born baby does not portray any kinds of reflex as they will develop with time. For instance, primitive reflexes tend to appear only in adults, but they were acquired when a person was still at the prenatal stage. Several environmental agents such as teratogens can bring damages to a person’s life (Bornstein, 2005). These environmental agents include tobacco, prescription and non prescription drugs, alcohol, illegal drugs, environmental pollutants and infectious diseases. If these agents are not controlled, then they might have stern effects on the life and development of a child. For instance, a child might develop early cancer due to the presence of tobacco. Infancy From the point of being conceived till the first year of life, a child is called an infant (Lerner, 2002). Developmental psychologists and the broad world differ largely in their assessment of infant psychology. However, I can say that the two parties are fairly clear in their views. We, psychological experts, and also the broad world, perceive that infants spend most of their time in slumber land. According to Piaget, at this first stage, sleep is evenly spread throughout the night and day (Boyd & Bee, 2006). However, after some months, infants generally become diurnal. I can separate infants into six states but group them in pairs. These pairs are active waking and quiet waking, fussing and crying and finally active sleep and quiet sleep. Infants also respond to stimuli in different ways during these states. Vision is essentially worse in infants when compared to older children. Hearing, on the other hand, is well-developed before birth (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Nevertheless, according to Piaget theory of development, newborns prefer complex sound rather than human speech. This is why it is essential for humans to understand a newborn’s language to avoid stressing the infant. Discovery of new behaviors, according to Piaget, arises from operant and classical conditioning, as well as the formation of habits (Lerner, 2002). I can go by Piaget’s view that infants, from eight months, can uncover hidden object, but will preserve when the object is moved from the original position. It is also essential to know that, at this point, children develop social and emotional attachments. Therefore, if this is not developed well by the individuals concerned with the infant, then the infant might have problems relating to others in the future. Critical Periods of Development There are a number of critical periods with regards to sensorimotor, perceptual, language and social system during development in infants (Levinson, 2006). This is because an infant’s development relies critically on environmental stimulation. Feral children, for instance Genie, are deprived of adequate stimulation. Therefore, they fail to acquire vital life skills, which would have enabled them to learn the hurdles of life as they developed. I suppose that the concept of critical periods is not well developed in neurophysiology. Therefore, it should incorporate works from renowned psychologists such as Wiesel, Hubel and Piaget among others. Classical music, in particular Mozart Classical Music, is vital for an infant’s mind during development (Levinson, 2006). Tentative research proves that classical music is also essential to older children, but I think is more helpful to infants. This is because an infant requires a calm mind more than an older child since he or she is less developed psychologically when compared to the older child (Levinson, 2006). Infants need to have a calm mind in order to go through the critical periods mentioned above that concern their development. If they have a calm mind, then they will go through this critical stage well. However, if a child does not have a calm mind, then they might shy away from tackling these critical periods and have problems in the future. Some children, in fact, do not learn how to walk properly when they are young due to not being free around people, and this might affect them with their walking in future. Some even, due to this, do not walk at all while they mature (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Toddlerhood The term toddler refers to a baby between the age of one and two years. At this point of life, intelligence and knowledge are demonstrated by the use of symbols, memory, and language along with imagination (Reid, 2007). It is vital to know that toddlers portray thinking in a nonreversible and non-logical manner. Children, at this stage, are also filled with egocentric thinking. I also agree with Piaget, that, socially, toddlers are little individuals trying to become independent at this early stage in life. Toddlers walk, use the toilet, talk and get food by themselves (Reid, 2007). At this stage of life, self-control begins to develop among toddlers. I also believe that, at this point, if taking initiative and risking is encouraged by caretakers, then a child will turn out to be self-reliant, confident and autonomous. If the caretaker is disapproving of independent actions or overprotective, then the toddler might start to doubt his or her capabilities and feel ashamed of the urge of being independent. The toddler’s development will be introverted, and less prepared to cope with the world in the future. This is why children should not be distracted, even when they fall, while they try to walk by themselves. Also, this is why a child should be left alone to eat by him or herself. Early Childhood When children are enrolled to preschool, they widen their social spheres and become more concerned with the individuals around them than the toddlers who are just seating at home (Siegler, 2006). According to Piaget’s theory of development, impulses, at this stage, are turned into fantasies. It is, therefore, vital for caretakers to balance the eagerness for trucking adventures, self-exploration and creativity with the development of responsibility. If caretakers are consistently disciplinary and properly encouraging, then children, at this stage, are likely to develop positively with regards to their self-esteem. Children will also follow through assigned activities, and be more responsible than children who are not taught to be responsible at this stage. As children develop, their early experiences in life tend to shape who they will be in future (Siegler, 2006). Past experiences allow children to perceive the world or environment in their own way. This information is helpful especially to caretakers who shy away from punishing their children. Even though, punishing a child looks like a sadistic act, it will help children to grow up morally. Punishing a child helps them to become responsible in future. As a psychologist, I know it helps that a person goes through everyday life experiences. If a child is not allowed to settle on which activity to perform, then he or she might start to feel guilty contemplating to take his or her own initiative to do the action. Late Childhood In late childhood, knowledge or intelligence is demonstrated through systematic and logical manipulation of symbols associated to concrete objects (Clarke, 2011). Egocentric thinking, which was prevalent among early childhood, diminishes, and, operational thinking develops. Children undergo a transition from spending much of their time at home to spending time at school and with peers (Smith, 2005). Children, at their late stage, acquire the skills to be a worker, learn to make use of tools and also potential providers. They can now get feedback from outsiders regarding their accomplishments (Smith, 2005). If caretakers take their time to help children at this stage discover happiness in their activities, including being productive, intellectual stimulation and seeking success, then they will develop a healthy sense of competence in life. If children cannot discover the pleasure in activities or are not successful, then they might develop a feeling of inadequacy or a sense of inferiority, which might haunt them throughout their life. Such a situation is when a child thinks of him or herself as inferior or industrious (Smith, 2005). As a psychologist, it helps me in noting that caretakers should take their time to assist children, at their late stage in life, to become successful and not inferior persons in life. This will, on the other hand, assist children in becoming industrious persons in the future. Adolescence Adolescence, on the other hand, is a stage in life that falls between the onsets of teenage years to a full commitment of adulthood (Tennant, 2006). It is time famous for the formation of mostly social and personal identity, as well as the discovery of moral purpose. Intelligence and knowledge is demonstrated through the systematic use of symbols associated with formal reasoning and abstract concepts (Tennant, 2006). According to Piaget and other renowned psychologists, only a mere 35% of individuals develop the capability of reasoning formally at this crucial stage of life. Individuals, at this point of life, develop questions such as who they want to be (Tennant, 2006). Just like toddlers, adolescents test limits and commit to an identity. Such information is helpful in that it helps caretakers to know how to give their respective adolescents proper identities that will enable them relate well with the society. Early Adulthood Early adulthood is the age when a person must learn how to create intimate relationships, both love and friendship (Bornstein, 2005). The development of these skills depends mainly on the resolution of early stages in life. It might be hard for a young adult to establish intimacy in a case where the person did not develop a sense of trust and identity when he or she was young (Bornstein, 2005). If these skills are not acquired at a young age, then the alternative left for an adult is isolation and alienation since he or she is afraid of commitment and depending on others. Such information could be used to educate caretakers on the importance of building the relationships of children at a young age. This will help them to avoid shying away from relationships during adulthood. Middle Age Middle age refers to the ages between 40 to 60 years. During this time, adults experience a conflict between stagnation and generativity (WGBH Educational Foundation, 2009). They might either have a feeling of contributing to the society, their immediate community, the next generation or a feeling of purposelessness. Physically, a middle-aged person undergoes a decline in muscular strength, sensory keenness, reaction time and cardiac output. Women, also experience a sharp drop in hormonal estrogen and menopause (WGBH Educational Foundation, 2009). Men also undergo an equivalent endocrine system prior to menopause. According to Piaget, men, at this stage of life, undergo andropause. This refers to a hormonal fluctuation with psychological and physical effects, which are similar to those seen with women undergoing menopause (WGBH Educational Foundation, 2009). As people age, lowered testosterone levels might contribute to mood swings along with a decline in sperm count for men. Response to sexual advancement can also decrease, and this is perfectly normal. As a psychologist, it would, therefore, be my duty to let adults know that whatever they might experience at this stage of life is perfectly normal to all humans at the middle age. Old Age Old age is mainly the stage for individuals who fall between the ages of 60 to 100 years (Smith, 2009). In old age, individuals experience conflict between despair and integrity. When reflecting on a lifespan, an individual might have a feeling of failure or accomplishment. Physically, older individuals experience a decline in stamina, reaction time, muscular strength, distance perception, hearing and a sense of smell. They are also more prone to severe illnesses such as pneumonia and cancer owing to a weakened immune system. During this stage, mental disintegration takes place, which also brings about dementia (Smith, 2009). Owing to a lifetime accumulation of antibodies, it is vital to know that people, at this stage, are less likely to suffer from various common illnesses for instance the common cold. As a psychologist, I consider this stage of life to be crucial just as the infancy stage of life. Therefore, people who are concerned with individuals at this stage should offer exceptional care to them, and try to understand what goes on around their lives. Conclusion Lifespan development refers to the scientific approach of growth, stability and change in a human’s life. This approach comprises of social, physical, cognitive and personality traits in a human being. It is, therefore, vital people for know how to relate with these factors that are concerned with development so as to assist individuals as they grow. I can recommend that institutions and the government to pour in funds that could enhance research regarding human development since it is an extremely broad area, but its study is limited due to inadequate resources. References Baltes, P. (2010). Lifespan developmental psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 3(31), 65–110. Bjorklund, D. (2009). Child development and evolutionary psychology. Child Development, 71(6), 1687–1708. Bornstein, M. (2005). Developmental science: An advanced textbook. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2005. Boyd, D., & Bee, H. (2006). Lifespan development (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Clarke, R. (2011). Human developmental process. New York: Oxford University Press. Hopson, B. (2006) Psychology for education (3rd ed.). London: McGraw Hill. Knowles, M. S. (2007). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd ed.). Chicago: Association Press. Lerner, R.M. (2002). Concepts and theories of human development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Levinson, D. (2006). The seasons of a man’s life (5th ed.). New York: Knopf. Reid, V. (2007). Social cognition during infancy. San Francisco, CA: Psychology Press. Siegler, R. (2006). How children develop: Exploring child development student media tool kit & scientific American reader to accompany how children develop. New York: Worth Publishers. Smith, F. (2005). To think: In language, learning and education. London: Routledge. Smith, M. (2009). Life span development and lifelong learning. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/lifecourse_development.htm Tennant, M. (2006) Psychology and adult learning (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. WGBH Educational Foundation (2009). Life span development our amazing capacity for change. Retrieved from http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/ Read More