History of the Eugenics Movement - Term Paper Example

? Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and the Boys Rebellion Introduction Eugenics was a pseudo-scientific theory, now confirmed erroneous and unscientific, that gained prominence at the beginning of the twentieth century. As a motley collection from various disciplines including biology, anthropology and genetics, the eugenics movement promoted racist and segregationist policies under the guise of science. The cornerstone of the movement’s ideals was that human beings were not created equal; some human beings were more intelligent, beautiful or talented than others. It was thus up to the superior human beings to rid society of the poorer elements. This “weeding out” of bad elements was seen as a good deed. It was a way of creating a stronger, better, utopian society free of baggage of the weaker elements of society. To paraphrase Darwinian Theory that the eugenics movement borrowed from, only the fittest were fit to survive and reproduce. In the wake of the eugenics movement, measurements of various aspects of human beings were devised to categorize people into fit and unfit. Intelligence testing was one of these. Intelligence was a key aspect towards recognition as fit to breed. People of lower intelligence were sterilized and or segregated. Elimination, though considered in the United States, thankfully never came to pass as it did in Nazi Germany. One of the institutions into which people who did not pass the intelligence test were confined in was the Fenarld School. The shocking goings-on in this institution, and possibly others of its kind, have just recently come to light. The branding of innocent young children as “morons”, their subsequent incarceration, and the abuse they suffered through can be directly attributed to the eugenics movement. This paper discusses the history of the eugenics movement, its pioneers and the damaging, lasting impact it had on the world. The Nature/Nurture Debate The nature versus nurture debate is the question of what exerts more influence in how a child develops and turns out to be. Nature in this case refers to the genetic predisposition as inherited from parents, while nurture refers to the environment a child is exposed to in his or her developmental stages. There is a general scientific agreement that both nature and nurture play a role in determining what people become. The eugenics movement, however, was convinced that nature, that is, genes, played more of a role than nurture. Prominent scientists of the time such as Francis Galton and Henry Goddard promoted the hereditary theories of intelligence. Twin studies were used to prove these theories. These studies involved observing twins who had been raised apart in different environments (Fancher, 1985). The argument was that parents of a high intelligence quota would produce a child who was highly intelligent. Following this line of reason, people with low IQs who had children together would inevitably produce children who were morons. It was in the best intentions of society, therefore, that such people were not allowed to reproduce. Sterilizing them without their knowledge or consent was hence the way to go. The role of genes in determining intelligence is overrated. A talented, gifted child who grows up devoid of social contact and in a non-nurturing environment cannot fulfill their intellectual capacity. The genetic makeup is rendered useless if there is a social vacuum. Furthermore, measures of intelligence do not factor in the social background, teaching methods and environment that the child is exposed to. As the developer of the Binet-Simon scale, Alfred Binet, theorized, intelligence is influenced by a multitude of external factors, and qualitative methods, more than quantitative methods, should be used to create these tests. Pioneers of Intelligence Testing As mentioned in the introduction, pioneers of the eugenics movement developed a wide variety of measurements to gauge different aspects of human beings. Intelligence testing was a major area of concentration. Below are some of the most well-known measures of intelligence devised and their proponents. Pierre Broca was a scientist who devoted his time to the study of the brain. Famously known for discovering Broca’s area, he also proposed a system of measuring skulls to ascertain brain capacity. This discipline was termed craniometry. The size of one’s skull corresponded with the size of their brain. This in turn corresponded with their measure of intelligence. Craniometry was used to justify racist theories on the lesser intelligence of people of other races. People of African descent, Negroes, had smaller skulls, meaning their brains were smaller than those of their Caucasian counterparts (Zenderland, 1988). Franz Joseph Gall also developed a system of measuring the external shape of the skull and using these measurements to determine intellectual capacities. He called his study craniology, later renamed phrenology. Francis Galton, who coined the phrase “nature versus nurture” and came up with the term “eugenics”, studied the hereditary nature of intelligence. He introduced the concept of correlation in measuring hereditary traits. Galton also pioneered twin studies as a method of confirming the priority of nature over nurture. He was convinced that twins reared in separate environments would still display similarities in intelligence and other hereditary traits (Fancher, 1985). Alfred Binet and Theo Simon developed a scale for measuring the intelligence of children, known as the Binet-Simon scale. The scale, meant for placement of children in school in their respective mental ages, was adopted in the United States to measure “feeble-mindedness” and segregate people based on their perceived mental capacities. Binet emphasized the influence of the environment on intellectual capacities and the importance of using qualitative, as opposed to purely quantitative methods, when measuring intelligence. These concerns were however dismissed when the scale was adopted in the United States. Henry Goddard introduced the Binet-Simon scale to the United States. He pioneered the use of intelligence tests and advocated the segregation, institutionalization and sterilization of those who did not pass these tests. His study of the Kallikak family reinforced the idea that feeble-minded people would breed degenerates (Goddard, 1914). These degenerates were prone to antisocial behavior such as alcoholism, crime and illicit sexual behavior. Controlling their ability to breed would thus reduce their population, ensuring they did not cause harm to society. The study also contributed strongly to the enforcement of sterilization laws in the United States. Lewis Terman adopted the Binet-Simon scale for use in the United States. His revision of the test, called the Stanford-Binet scale, was used in schools to measure children’s’ intelligence quotient (IQ). Children could then be classified and educated based on their IQ, hence determining their future role in society. Terman believed that IQ was a hereditary trait and that children with a higher IQ were more useful to society (Zenderland, 1988). He also believed that intelligence was a strong contributor to success in life. Children who failed were meant to work menial tasks, while those who passed, who inevitably came from well-off families, were meant to succeed. A child’s background, therefore, was not an external factor to their intelligence, but a sign that the parents were also of poor genetic stock. Controversies on Intelligence Testing Intelligence testing has been criticized as a prejudicial and erroneous system designed to oppress certain segments of the population. This criticism is attributable to the designation of intelligence tests; the criteria used are often biased towards some people at the expense of others. It is therefore very difficult to construct an intelligence test that covers all possible areas and is fair to all. The Eleven-Plus is an examination used in the United Kingdom to determine students’ admittance into secondary schools. The exam derives its name from the ages of the children examined, they are often aged 11 and above. The Eleven Plus system faced controversy due to its nature: it determined the placement of children on the path to specific careers on the basis of their performance on this exam. Children who passed attended prestigious grammar schools and were destined for high-profile careers. Average performers were placed in secondary schools. Those who performed poorly were sent to technical schools to be trained in menial tasks (Burt, 1921). The examination thus became a rigorous, tense affair for students because it was a crucial determinant of their entire future. The examination also seemed to be designed to favor children from middle and upper class families. They were more likely to pass and attend the prestigious grammar schools. Questions on issues such as classical composers posed a challenge for children from lower-class families. Cyril Burt was an English educationist and psychologist who firmly believed in the hereditary properties of intelligence. He pioneered the Eleven Plus examination system in the United Kingdom. He also conducted twin studies to prove his theories on intelligence. Burt admitted that children from lower classes could perform dismally in exams, but still attributed this to defective genes inherited from their parents (Burt, 1921). He believed that this lower stock of genes as a contributory factor to poverty, hence creating a vicious cycle of poverty. Burt’s twin studies were the center of a controversy in which he was accused of manipulating data to suit his convictions and prove his points (Joynson, 1989). The intelligence scores of every set of twins raised in different environments was extremely similar. The likelihood of finding 53 sets of twins who were reared apart also came into question. The research assistants named in the studies could not be found anywhere. Supporters of Burt insisted that he used pseudonyms when publishing, hence the reason none of the research assistants could be traced (Joynson, 1989). The Burt controversy was a demonstration of the importance of accuracy and honesty when conducting scientific research. The Bell Curve is a book that hypothesized on the intelligence distribution in a society and the effects of IQ on the well-being of an individual. The Bell Curve’s authors stated in the book that the IQs of Black Americans were in average lower than those of their white counterparts (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994). Public outrage at such claims was instant. The issue of intelligence testing and classification of people according to their IQ has always been a sensitive matter (Rescher, 1995). The use of eugenics in Nazi Germany to commit the worst genocide in modern times is still fresh in the public’s memory. The book’s surviving author did not release the statistical data they used to arrive at their conclusions. After fellow scientists demanded to see the data for peer review, it was finally made public. Close scrutiny of the statistics indicated that it was incorrectly interpreted and some assumptions were wrong to begin with. The book has been accused of using biased data to reach such conclusions. It has also been viewed as a masquerade of eugenic theories in the name of science and statistical data. The Eugenics Movement The Eugenics movement, as aforementioned, was a pseudo-scientific movement that espoused the ideology of a super race. This super race, the Nordic race, contained specific qualities such as blondeness, blue eyes, tall stature and intelligence. Any people who did not fit these narrow criteria were deemed unfit to reproduce (Black, 2004). The eugenics movement enforced their beliefs by invoking the physical and natural sciences such as biology, anthropology and evolutionary theories. The Nordic, supreme race was the peak of human evolution and civilization, and the other dark, short, unintelligent or different in any way had to be stopped from breeding (Black, 2004). Thus sterilization, segregation and strict marriage laws forbidding “miscegenation”, intermarrying between different races, were enacted. These acts were designed to move the desired race forward without the inconvenience of the “undesirables” in society. Scientists from prestigious universities such as Princeton, Yale and Harvard received grants from well-established institutions to conduct eugenic research. The involvement of corporations such as the Rockefeller Foundation, The Carnegie Institute and the Max Planck Institute in the eugenics movement in the United States and Germany has been mostly whitewashed from history (Kuhl, 2002). These institutes contributed large sums of money towards experimental centers for research such as twin study research. The horrific research on twins by the infamous Dr. Mengele at Auschwitz was funded by money from these institutions. The use of eugenics by Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany to conduct horrific exterminations of millions of people has made it taboo to be even remotely connected to the theory. The fact still remains, however, that European and American scientists, politicians and corporations played a large part in the growth and dissemination of the theory. Politicians invoked eugenic theories to find favor with the American population during harsh economic times. Intelligence testing of immigrants was conducted at their arrival, leading to most of the would-be immigrants being turned away due to inferior intelligence. This was in an effort to keep America clean and avoid its contamination by inferior immigrant stock of Jewish, Italian and Portuguese descent. Eugenic policy was enforced in the segregation and forced sterilization laws enforced in thirty states. Women of Black and native Indian origin were forcefully sterilized, sometimes without their knowledge. The government undertook these measures to control the unfit population (Black, 2004). The American eugenic movement gave Nazi Germany a blueprint for carrying out their racial cleansing, right down to the use of “gassing chambers” as a means of eugenicide (Black, 2004). Writings on eugenics by American scientists were translated and disseminated throughout Germany. Adolf Hitler cited the eugenics-based classification of people in America as a great inspiration. He exchanged the term “Nordic” for “Aryan”, though the desirable Aryan qualities remained the same. German scientists closely collaborated with American scientists on their findings. These findings were made possible by cruel, barbaric experiments on prisoners. The Germans had a large supply of camp prisoners to work on, unlike American scientists who were limited by lack of sufficient test subjects. Thus eugenics, the science that justified the killing of millions, was fostered in the United States. The State Boys Rebellion The Walter E. Fernald School was a state institution for the mentally unqualified. These included children who had failed the Stanford-Binet intelligence tests, people who were considered “morons”, the mentally unstable, and other like people. Some of the children incarcerated, such as Freddie Boyce, felt that they did not belong there. As they grew up and were exposed to the outside world, they realized they were unfairly incarcerated and classified morons. This led to a violent rebellion in one of the wards, which is where the expose on the school, The State Boys Rebellion, is derived from (D’Antonio, 2004). Though the rebellion failed, the fate of the State Boys came to light years later. The intelligence tests the children had been given were often unfair, sentencing perfectly healthy and intelligent children to a life of incarceration. The children also suffered neglect, torture and physical, sexual and mental abuse. Radiation experiments were even carried out on them (D’Antonio, 2004). These children were wards of the state, yet the state had failed to protect them. Society failed them too, because most of these children came from families that were unable to care for them. In the current atmosphere, abuses such as the ones these children endured would never be allowed to happen. Regulations and controls exist, and children’s homes and foster families are scrutinized closely to ensure a stable environment. Experiments of the sort conducted on the inhabitants of the school are outlawed in today’s society. Ethical and moral standards have challenged issues such as involuntary institutionalization. Society learns from history, and the negative impact of intelligence testing using eugenic principles was a lesson Americans learnt, not only from Germany, but from stories such as the State Boys Rebellion. Science and the Potential for Good or Evil State intervention is necessary where children suffer in the hands of their family. Children with special needs require attention that their families may be unable to provide. The Fernald School believed it was acting in the interests of society by incarcerating these children. The eugenics movement sincerely believed that it was in the best interest of society to segregate individuals who did not fit. The intention of reforming and rehabilitating the “morons” in society was well-intentioned. The way they went about it, however, was a totally different matter. Whether or not their intentions were good, however, the fact remains that they abused and traumatized innocent children. The important thing is to uphold the safety and well-being of the children wherever they are placed. The school failed to uphold their duty to the children. Conclusion The history of eugenics and intelligence testing is an example of how horribly wrong a scientific theory can go wrong. Classification of people according to specific criteria with the intention of repressing and oppressing certain segments is morally and ethically wrong. Intelligence testing is a sensitive topic that should be conducted with the utmost care, not because it may offend people’s sensibilities, but because the repercussions may be grave. References Black, E. (2004). War against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press. Burt, C. (1921). Mental and Scholastic Tests. London: Oxford University Press. D’Antonio, M. (2004). The State Boys Rebellion. New York: Simon and Schuster. Fancher, R. (1985). The Intelligence Men: Makers of the IQ Controversy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Goddard, H. (1914). Feeble-mindedness: Its Causes and Consequences. New York: Macmillan. Joynson, B. (1989). The Burt Affair. New York: Routledge. Kuhl, S. (2002). The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rescher, N. (1995). The Bell Curve Revisited: Public Affairs Quarterly. Illinois: University of Illinois Press. Herrnstein, R., & Murray, C. (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. Michigan: Free Press. Zenderland, L. (1988). Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing. Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press. Read More