The Analysis of Bias in the Media - Essay Example

? MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY The Analysis of Bias in the Media Word Count: 3,369 0 Introduction Potter (as cited in R. Lerner, J. Lerner, &Benson, 2011, p. 261) stressed that the news is not an accurate reflection of actual events or reality. The news presented in the media is a story about events instead of events per se. These stories are created by journalists who are highly influenced by various constraints outside their control. In addition, journalists are also influenced by some other factors, which determine what stories get presented in the news. The information presented in the media influences public opinion and views in numerous ways. It possesses the ability to influence the individual's attitudes and beliefs by virtue of its delivery system. The information provided by the media and the manner it is presented significantly affects what people believe and think. The media do not only prime individuals, but it also frames the information. The press determines what issues should be considered by the public as important through priming. An issue is regarded by readers as important when it is placed in the front page. Similarly, there is a tendency for readers to favor one side of the issue compared to the other side due to the amount of information provided to this side. Thus, the press posters bias in presenting news stories. It consequently impels individuals to support a partial view at the expense of other alternatives (Geer, 2004, p. 41). This paper seeks to discuss the concept of bias and the underlying mechanisms that foster bias in the media. In addition, it outlines relevant theories and concepts that facilitate bias including Elaboration Likelihood Model, Heuristic-Systematic Model, and agenda-setting, priming, and framing. This paper examines the differences and similarities of two articles that tackle a particular issue through thematic analysis. Lastly, it discusses the implications of bias found in a particular article. 2.0 The Concept of Bias Bias is defined as the inclination to espouse a partial view at the expense of other alternatives (“Bias,” n.d.). Most individuals consider the news presented by the media as bias. Media bias refers to the tendency to exhibit an unbalanced view, so information is communicated in such a manner that favors one interest over the other (Bond & Smith, 2011, p. 277). Bias may be knowingly or unknowingly fostered through agenda-setting. Agenda-setting is based on the premise that media influence the public agenda through selecting certain topics for news coverage. This consequently determines what issues will be considered by the public as fundamental or important. The journalist’s decisions, on what events or issues to include in the coverage, significantly matter with the various stories available on a daily basis (Geer, Schiller, Segal, & Glencross, 2011, p. 231). Shaw and McCombs (as cited in Harris & Tichenor, 2009, p. 267) studied agenda setting, in the media coverage of the 1968 presidential campaign. Findings indicated that voters put importance on particular issues in such a manner that reflects the coverage of such issues in the media. Thus, issues considered by the media as important were consequently deemed by the public as important. The media focused on terrorism during 2004. The voters in the U.S. began to regard terrorism as one of the pressing problems during such period. Thus, most voters cast their votes for George W. Bush as he concentrated on fighting terrorism (cited in Davis, 2009, p. 11). Mullen et al. (as cited in Giles, 2003, p. 216) asserted that newsreaders may unknowingly influence the interpretation of the audience for a particular news material. These researchers studied how the newsreader’s facial expressions influence the response of viewers to information being reported. The study concentrated on the coverage of the 1984 presidential campaign in the U.S. wherein Ronald Reagan defeated Walter Mondale. Subjects were asked by the researchers to rate facial expressions of different newscasters without listening to their voices. Findings suggest that a particular newsreader, ABC’S Peter Jennings, exhibited more positive facial expressions than the other newsreaders in reporting Reagan’s campaign. A survey then revealed that more number of ABC viewers voted for Reagan (as cited in Giles, 2003, p. 216). 3.0 Relevant Theory or Concept Persuasion facilitates bias in the media. Researchers defined persuasion as an intentional effort to influence the individual’s mental state through symbolic and rational means (O’Keefe, 2002, p. 5). Researchers examined and studied persuasion using two models of information processing namely, Elaboration Likelihood Model and Heuristic-Systematic Model. These models explain why individuals vary in the degree of cognitive effort they allocate to the information presented in the media. Researchers regard these two models as two endpoints in a continuum (Wiener & Bornstein, 2011, p. 34). 3.1 Elaboration Likelihood Model Petty and Cacioppo (as cited in Witte, Meyer, & Martell, 2001, p. 42) proposed the Elaboration Likelihood Model, which concentrates on the relationship of information processing and behavior. It is based on the proposition that two individuals process the same information differently due to their different personalities, mood states, background, and the like. This model asserts that individuals process information either through peripheral or central route. Individuals who process information through peripheral route do not critically analyze the arguments in a certain message. They rely on reputation, credibility, and attractiveness to guide their decisions in performing the behavior. In contrast, individuals who have the ability and motivation to critically analyze a topic process the information centrally through carefully evaluating the content of a particular message (cited in Witte, Meyer, & Martell, 2001, p. 42). Elaboration Likelihood model assumes that it is non-adaptive for individuals to carefully evaluate each and every message with the presence of numerous, persuasive communication. Individuals tend to exert more elaborative effort in particular situations and lesser in others depending on the level of their ability and motivation. Central processing of a particular message occurs when the ability and motivation to elaborate is high. In contrast, if the individual’s level of ability and motivation to evaluate the information is low, his/her attitude pertaining to a particular message will rely on peripheral route processes. However, researchers noted that attitude change generated thorough central route is frequently based on rational and objective reasoning. Bias may occur if an individual is presented with more information pertaining to a certain side of the issue compared to the opposing side. Research showed that bias processing occurs with a high level of elaboration (cited in Witte, Meyer, & Martell, 2001, p. 42). 3.2 Heuristic-Systematic Models The similarity of Heuristic-systematic model with the Elaboration Likelihood Model is quite apparent. Heuristic-systematic model proposed the systematic processing route which represents a thorough treatment of particular judgement-related information. It is a reasoning process that resembles the central processing route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model. Meanwhile, heuristic processing route involves a low-effort and fast process which relies on the activation of heuristics or judgement rules. The heuristic processing and systematic processing may occur simultaneously and operate independently. This is perhaps the most apparent difference between the Heuristic -systematic model and Elaboration Likelihood Model. Individuals who unconsciously process information through the heuristic processing route may be highly susceptible to bias in the media. These individuals become passive receivers of information in the media; thus, they may easily change their views according to what is represented in the media (Larson, 2009). 3.2 Agenda-Setting, Priming and Framing Agenda-setting, priming, and framing explain the underlying mechanisms that foster bias in the media. Agenda-setting refers to the assumption that media influence the public agenda through selecting certain topics for news coverage (Geer, 2004). The media possess the power to determine what issues the society and individuals should consider as relevant. A study showed that agenda-setting serves as an essential process of socializing individuals to the political system. Agenda-setting shapes individual’s political ideologies and assumptions which subsequently lead to higher involvement in the voting process (cited in J. Willis & W. Willis, 2007, p. 59). Meanwhile, priming pertains to recent activation of constructs that consequently influences public judgement. The media commonly activate a particular concept for a certain period of time. The likelihood of recollecting such concept increases as the amount of time allotted for its exposure increases. Priming is facilitated by the individual’s use of cognitive shortcuts and heuristics. Individuals have an inclination to select a convenience sample from stored knowledge, which seems important in processing information in the memory (as cited in Barnett & Boster, 1997). Lastly, framing refers to minimal modifications in the statement or representation of issues. Researchers asserted that such modification is exhibited through highlighting certain facts over the others (as cited in Callaghan & Schnell, 2005). According to Barnett and Boster (1997), certain story angles and perspectives appear in the news regularly compared to others. Thus, certain stories are heavily presented in the news. There is a tendency for the audience to align his/her views with the side presented by the media. In addition, they may perceive that particular issues are fundamental due to its level of visibility. The packaging and presentation of the news influence how the audience understands and perceives them. Framing influences how individuals think about particular issues. Reporters determine what to exclude or include in the frame of a certain story. They do not only make decisions on what words, tones, and facts to include in the story, but also the interpretation, conceptual framework, and context of the facts (Dalton & Schnell, 2005, p. 133). 4.0 Research Method The current study employs thematic analysis. Thematic analysis pertains to a systematic approach of analyzing qualitative data, which primarily identifies patterns or themes of cultural meaning. It classifies data according to themes. In addition, it interprets the resulting thematic structures by looking through theoretical constructs, explanatory principles, and overarching patterns. Thematic analysis is commonly used by scholars in different fields (Mills, Durepos, & Wiebe, 2010, p. 925). 5.0 Comparison of Data from the Selected Media Sources Johnson and Gliddon (2012) have managed to present the different perspectives of the issue of how immigration outside the EU affects the British workers. In contrast, McTague (2012) highlighted how migrants outside Europe put British workers out of a job. The headline itself is presented in such manner that persuades the readers of the adverse effects of immigration policies in the U.K. McTague (2012) began the article by presenting the findings of the study of the Migration Advisory Committee (MAC). He wrote that MAC found approximately 160,000 British workers do not have jobs due to the presence of 700,000 non-European migrants in the U.K. McTague (2012) then discussed the possible consequences of migration to the public services. The findings from the study conducted by the MAC are presented to support the premise. McTague (2012) showed how migration outside Europe will pave the way for approximately 112,000 demands for homes in 2017. The report further indicated that the prices of houses and the cost of renting houses will eventually increase. McTague (2012) then presented the view of Davian Green, Immigration Minister, which supports the premise that uncontrollable immigration puts pressure on infrastructure, public services, and community relations in the country. He then provided information on how migration outside the continent puts pressure to the local labour market. The article ended with the proposed solution to the issue. The solution presented somehow strengthens the premise that immigration outside Europe affects the British workers. Chris Bryant, immigration minister, asserts the need for controlled migration and greater emphasis on the needs of the citizens in U.K. (McTague, 2012). Johnson and Gliddon (2012) similarly first outlined the findings of MAC that migration outside Europe leads to displacement of British workers; however, they immediately provided counterarguments for such findings. The article explains that the displacement and impact of migration to British workers does not last long. In addition, it stresses that the presence of migrants who reside in U.K. for five years and beyond is not related to displacement of the British workers. Johnson and Gliddon (2012) presented the views of Professor Metcalf on the need for a study that concentrates on the effect of migration on the British citizen’s economic well-being. A study should also delve on the impact of migration on housing, transport, public finances, and employability of British workers. The article presented the views of Scott Blender for the need of the U.K. government to define its priorities in its immigration policy. It also tackled the perspective of Minister Damian Green in the benefits of controlled migration and adverse effects of uncontrolled migration. The article puts emphasis on the effects of uncontrolled migrations on infrastructure, community relations, and services. Lastly, it highlights the view of Matt Cavanagh on the validity of the premise that immigrants put British-workers out of a job. However, it also presented how Matt Cavanaugh makes it clear that the unfavorable consequences of migration only manifest in a short term period and relate to migrants outside Europe (Johnson & Gliddon, 2012). The article written by McTague (2012) can be considered as bias since it only presents the consequences of migration from outside Europe. It failed to stress that controlled migration can also be beneficial for the country. It concentrated in providing supporting points for the premise that immigration outside Europe puts British workers out of job instead of presenting counterarguments. In addition, the article of McTague (2012) failed to put emphasis on the long-term impact of migration to employment of British workers. In contrast, the article written by Johnson and Gliddon (2012) has asserted that migrants who reside in the country for five years and beyond are not correlated to the displacement of British workers. 6.0 Implications of Any Bias Found Sargeant and Jay (2004, p. 41) reiterated that the media have a profound influence on the public opinion as they serve as the primary means of transmitting and disseminating information to the public. How the media present a particular story influences the individual’s attitudes and beliefs through framing the information. The media may not influence latent opinion, but it can prompt different responses through highlighting one perspective of the issue and downplaying the other. Sargeant and Jay (2004, p. 41) further stressed that the reporter’s choice of when to narrate and whom to quote influences the information that the public digests. Individuals who utilized the peripheral or heuristic processing may be highly susceptible to the bias in the McTague’s article. They may rely on heuristics or judgement rules to process the information. Thus, these individuals may believe that migrants put British workers out of a job. However, those who process information through central or systematic process may also be influenced by bias in McTague’s article. This is mainly facilitated by the presence of excessive information for a particular side of the issue compared to the opposing side. Framing serves as a process wherein a particular side is highlighted in McTagues' articles over the other side. The premise that migrants outside Europe put British workers out of job is highly emphasized in the article. Thus, readers may align his/her perspectives with the side presented by the article. The packaging and presentation of facts in McTague's article influence how individuals perceive and understand them. The presence of bias in McTague’s article may impel readers or British workers to treat migrants improperly. It serves as a breeding ground for discrimination and prejudice. Opportunities for migrants may significantly decrease. There is a tendency for employers to prioritise British workers and present lesser opportunities to the migrants. The readers may undermine that migrants pay more taxes. They may concentrate solely on the unfavorable effects of the presence of migrants in the country instead of look at the two sides of the issue. 6.0 Conclusion There is a tendency for the news to espouse partial views at the expense of some other alternatives. Media bias pertains to an inclination to express unbalanced views, so information is transmitted and disseminated in such a way that favors one interest over the other. Elaboration Likelihood Model, Heuristic-Systematic Model, and agenda-setting, priming, and framing are relevant theories and concepts that explain the mechanisms underlying bias in the media. Elaboration Likelihood Model is based on the proposition that two individuals process the information differently. It supports the premise that information is processed by individuals through either peripheral route or central route. Similarly, heuristic-systematic model supports the assumption that individuals utilized two processing routes. The systematic processing route is used when an individual thoroughly and logically processes the information. Meanwhile, heuristic-systematic route is employed when individuals exert less effort in processing information. Unlike Elaboration Likelihood Model, the heuristic and systematic processes operate simultaneously and independently in the Heuristic-Systematic Model. Agenda-setting pertains to the proposition that the media influence the public agenda through the selection of particular news for news coverage. The media have the power to determine what issues and problems the society and individuals should regard as essential. Meanwhile, priming refers to recent activation of constructs which subsequently influences public judgement. Lastly, framing pertains to slight modifications in the representation or statement of issues. This modification is undertaken through highlighting particular facts over the others. The current study employed thematic analysis in comparing the data from two selected media sources. Thematic analysis is defined as a systematic approach of analyzing qualitative data through identifying themes or patterns. The article written by McTague only highlighted views and statements that support the premise that migrants outside Europe put British workers out of a job. In contrast, the article of Johnson and Gliddon presented different perspectives of the issue. Thus, McTague’s article fosters bias compared to the article of Johnson and Gliddon. It focused on the unfavorable effects of the migrant’s presence in the UK instead of tackling the other side of the issue. There is a higher tendency for readers to espouse similar views presented in McTague’s article through processing the information in the peripheral route or heuristic processing route. However, those individuals who process information through central route or systematic route are not inoculated from the bias in McTague’s article. They became susceptible to bias when an article presents a large amount of information to one side of the issue. The presence of bias in McTague’s article may consequently impel British workers to offer migrants less opportunities and treat them improperly. However, it should be noted that this study may offer inconclusive analysis. 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