Development of Clinical Psychology - Research Paper Example

? Development of Clinical Psychology James Bohn Walden August 5, PSYC-8207-3 History and Systems of Counseling and Psychology OutlineI. Introduction a. Development of Clinical Psychology b. Evolving theories c. Thesis d. Behavioral and Psychoanalytic Approaches II. Early Psychology Clinics a. Lightner Witmer i. First psychology journal ii. Creation of term “clinical psychology” b. Similar clinics established III. Changes in field a. More assessment skills i. Significant in WWI b. Army Alpha and Army Beta c. Assessment fundamental in clinical psychology IV. American Association of Clinical Psychology a. Primary Function b. Importance during WWII c. Success in U.S. Veteran Association d. Creation of Division 12 V. Psychoanalysis a. Theory behind psychoanalysis b. Distinguishable symptoms i. Inability to relate with others ii. Low self-esteem iii. Disturbed personal traits c. Used as treatment d. Behaviorism VI. Conclusion a. Clinical psychology as a subdivision b. Origins traced to Witmer c. Establishment of Division 12 The study of psychology has been transformative since the late eighteenth century. Scientific experiments were originally used in order to determine more theory behind the field. Clinical psychology, a subdivision of psychology, became a controversial area with some theorists praising it while others criticized it heavily. The history of clinical psychology has contributed greatly to society in many historical events including WWI and WWII along with transforming the way people theorize about the topic. This establishment looked more in depth the comparisons of behavioral and psychoanalytic approaches. Ultimately, the field of psychology, specifically clinical psychology, has shown that human nature is more complicated than what it originally appears. Abstract By the late eighteenth century, the study of psychology was being established in various University laboratories. During that period, the study of psychology heavily depended on scientific experiments to determine some of the nature of its phenomena. The historical development of clinical psychology, as a subdivision of psychology, has been an interesting area of study among psychologists as some of its theories describing its evolution have been seconded while others have been criticized. This paper provides a brief historical development of clinical psychology by highlighting the major issues and ideas that are associated with it. In addition, behavioral and psychoanalytic approaches to human behavior are compared and contrasted in order to understand clearly about how they influence human behavior. Development of Clinical Psychology Introduction Clinical psychology is a combination of clinical knowledge, theory, as well as science; mainly designed to understand and relieve the mind of distress and dysfunction. Modern psychology is known to have developed by Wilhelm Wundt, although, the earliest known practices of clinical psychology is mainly religious and mystical; what came to be known as ‘mental healing practices’. However, most of these practices were rejected by scientific communities and finally by the end of the 19th century, it was Sigmund Freud who came up with his famous ‘talking cure’ that set the beginnings of clinical psychology as we know it. From the early explorations of the idea that experience and memory impact the present, the formation of clinical psychological frameworks were beginning to emerge. Mental issues are found in psychological clinics where professional psychiatrists are available to help people find treatment for the mental issues from which they suffer, using both special therapies and their own innate intelligence. It was historically noted by the author Lightner Witmer that psychiatrists should receive extensive medical training on psychology before dealing with the people who are going through these diseases. (Witmer, 1907) There are also psychological clinics, which were particularly built for the children who were suffering from mental problems, emphasizing issues and treatment of children differently from adults. Moreover, clinical psychology must be pursued as a specialized career, with a personal focus on teaching, research, conducting and managing community programs, etc. in order to be successful. This paper intends to develop an understanding of how the emergence of clinical psychology occurred as well as the impact that it has had on the nature of mental health care. Through a discussion of the pioneers of the concept of clinical psychology, the nature of its development can be put into context with history. In looking at the development of professional organizations, the reliability and validity of the topic is given more credibility. Finally, in examining the nature of psychoanalysis and its development, the primary resources needed for the work in clinical psychology is addressed. This paper will explore the historical development and value of clinical psychology. Early Psychological Clinics Early psychological clinics were mainly established to assist children who had learning disabilities. As learning became defined by behavior and through understanding how learning was developed, the idea that the way in which learning was accomplished, combined with the idea that learning abilities could be addressed and refocused began to emerge. The concept of developing strategies for learning was the foundation on which clinical psychology was built. The very first experiment was done by Lightner Witmer (the head of the psychology department at the University of Pennsylvania) in 1896, when he successfully helped a boy with a spelling difficulty, which led to the founding of the first psychological clinic (Trull, 2005). Witmer launched the first psychology journal in 1907, and changed the term psychological clinic to clinical psychology. He defined this term as the study of individuals, either by experimentation or by observation with the aim of encouraging change. It took about seven years before other psychologists joined Witmer and by 1914, 26 such similar clinics were established in the United States (Trull, 2005). Psychoanalysis and behavioral approaches to human behavior are some of the approaches used by clinical psychologists to assess and treat their patients. Psychoanalysis suggests that most people are unaware of the factors that influence their emotions and behaviors (Palmer & Woolfe, 2000). These unknown factors have the capability to cause unhappiness, which in turn is revealed through a number of distinguishable symptoms such as inability to relate with others, low self-esteem, disturbed personal traits or general disposition (Palmer & Woolfe, 2000). Psychoanalysis treatment is mainly aimed at establishing how these unconscious factors cause such behavioral patterns. Behaviorism on the other hand, suggests that human psychology mainly depends on an individual’s behavior. The theories further postulate that a consciousness is not a usable or a defined concept with which to explain human behavior. Behaviorists hold that human behaviors depend on an individual’s beliefs and experiences based on how it was induced into their conscious and unconscious mind (Wayne, 2008). The way in which personal development through clinical psychology has developed has been through the reflective-practitioner model. This model of therapy revolves around the idea that the past is reflected upon in order maintain a level of personal learning (Hughes & Youngson, 2009). The evolution of the clinical psychology models has been through the expansions of the psychoanalysis models of Sigmund Freud, through to the models of reflective practice that have been developed to address the problems of those who are high functioning and without a great deal of impact on their abilities to survive in the modern world. The nature of reflective practice is to find a way to purposefully address all of the ways in which experiences have culminated in the defense mechanisms and to treat those mechanisms for their positive or negative advantages, changing those, which are inhibiting a better-rounded life for the patient. The development of this type of practice is dependent upon the past, the ways in which assessment and psychoanalysis have evolved to support a system in which anyone can benefit from the process (Johns, 2009). Changes in the Field While this field of psychology was growing, most of the neurologists and psychiatrists working towards the betterment of mental health issues were still dealing with individuals who had mental disabilities. Clinical psychologists found success improving as they continued to acquire more assessment skills (Wayne, 2008). Assessment skills became more significant during the World War I when two intelligence tests were designed: the Army Alpha and the Army Beta, which tested verbal and nonverbal skills (Trull, 2005). The tests were developed in order to serve both those that could and could not read as literacy was an issue within the armed forces during World War I. These assessments were defined by the interest in asserting the differences of intelligence as it related to age (Kausler, Kausler, Krupsaw, & Kausler, 2007). Assessment therefore, became the fundamental area of study in clinical psychology, which depended on the success of such tests. It was during the 1960s that the idea of a doctorate of psychology was developed. The idea that the practice of clinical psychology was a pursuit that required a higher level of educational achievement was not considered seriously until this time. While the study of clinical psychology was respected, the idea that it should be valued at a doctorate level did not occur until the 1960s, at which time it became an elevated academic pursuit (Richard & Huprick, 2009). The pursuit of both experimental and clinical practice had always been held together within a framework of expectations of success; the development of a formalized educational level of excellence gave higher credibility to the pursuit of clinical psychology as an individuated discipline. During the 1970s, the practice of clinical psychology was in the practice of therapy, which became the driving force within the discipline during that time. Therapy became a way of life for many people as they sought help in dealing with modern life. Through the use of therapies that were centered on talk therapy methods as developed by Sigmund Freud and others expanded throughout the century by other theorists, the idea of dealing with one’s emotional problems through psychological intervention not only expanded in the academic realm, but emerged as an elitist and fashionable way of coping with life. While rural and middle America dealt with their problems through their own created methods of dealing, the urban dwelling citizens were finding therapists and asserting their need for treatment of daily life. Where there was certainly enough to justify such attentions to mental health issues, this also created a separation that defined the elite who could afford weekly sessions from those with lower socio-economic status who could not afford to deal with their issues in therapeutic surroundings (Walker & Kanfer, 2007). Clinical psychology as a profession has continued to grow since 1970s and also became an educational discipline because of its increasing value in professional fields. The appropriate number of working clinical psychologists professionally cannot be stated clearly but it is roughly estimated that a number of nearly twenty thousand professionals were there in United States of America in 1974 (Wayne, 2008). Nevertheless, this field expanded and till 1990s, the number increased to nearly sixty thousand, which is also a rough estimation (Wayne, 2008). The clinical psychology field transformed a number of other parts of life also such as mental health care management, knowledge acquisition of multicultural and assorted people belonging to different lands, medication and so on (Richard & Huprick, 2009). In today’s scenario, clinical psychology is among the most likable professional fields because it has changed with the passage of time and has gained reputation as an advantageous discipline to be adopted as a career. American Association of Clinical Psychology The American Association of Clinical Psychology was commissioned in 1917 and it lasted for the next two years until the specific and redefined Clinical Psychology section was created in 1919. The growth and development of this section was slow in the following years. In 1930, The American Association of Applied Psychology was founded and its primary function was to deal with clinical psychology, which later changed when the APA was reconstituted (Trull, 2005). Clinical psychologists became well known at the beginning of the Second World War when they assessed soldiers after war. They also provided advice to young mothers on how to rear their children. After their success in treating soldiers, the U.S. Veterans’ Association began sponsoring clinical psychologists up to the doctorate level. World War II saw the opening of the National Council of Women Psychologists, mainly due to the traumatic conditions that evolved in people after the outbreak of the war. The bodily injuries were quite easy to tend to, but that was not the case with the mental injuries. Clinical Psychology began to be used far and wide to deal with stresses of post-war complications. The American Association of Psychologists was formed around this period, 1892. It is an association of clinicians and academicians who work towards the benefit of society on the whole and improve the lives of the people. In 1950, more than half of the total awarded psychology PhDs were in clinical psychology (Trull, 2005). The APA created the present Division 12, a section of Clinical Psychology, in 1945 and it is the largest organization in this field. Since the 1970s, clinical psychology has grown significantly and these psychologists are professionals in assessments and psychotherapy. Most of these psychologists mainly get employment opportunities in hospitals (Trull, 2005). Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis was a theory that was developed in the late 19th century and it was mainly due to the efforts of Carl Gustav Jung and Sigmund Freud that the world was introduced to the inception of a unique theory known as Psychoanalysis. The theory contains around 22 orientations, which mainly concern human and mental development. It is also studied under the broad spectrum of ‘Child Development’. There are various analytic theories that are used to understand mental disturbances, either with medicines or with individual interventions. The preliminary stages of treatment involve direct communication with the intervener and trust and empathy on the individual’s end. Usually neurosis and hysteria are the main areas where psychoanalysis is effective. Psychoanalysis deals with human inspirations, activities, personal growth, and life experiences shared by common values in human nature. (Freud, 1910) Psychoanalysis is used as a treatment for those who confront psychological problems through Freudian theory and bear personal introspection upon the intricacies of their own life through dream interpretation and other methods of reflection on emotions. This treatment is based on the aspects of mind observed by individuals across society and history in the clinical environment as related to mental illness, as well as theoretically establishing what determines the patients’ personal sentiments and behavior patterns. Because these aspects are often unconscious, they may not be able to be unveiled without the help of a Psychoanalyst, even with the guidance of family, friends and other resources. Psychoanalysis treatment identifies personal aspects of mind and behavior, inquiring as to how they are affecting the emotions, behavior and relations of an individual in the social environment. (Freud, 1910) Freudian theory then traces the history of these aspects in cultural expression and how they have evolved over time in collective values, beliefs, and moral systems to help the individual to understand these difficulties in order to live the life in a better way. Introspection is one of the tools of psychoanalysis. Introspection’s definition has not been fully agreed to for its full explanation. However the elements of introspection such as its temporal nature, is in its reliability and its difficulty. Introspection can be described for both the traditional and contemporary uses. However, researchers sometimes disagree on the accurateness of introspective judgments, either in broad or in narrow terms, by referring to many cases in which people go wrong in determining critically the truth of their own experiences (Dunlap, 1912) Because of this, there appears to be a huge inconsistency inherent in this process, and more scientific methodologies are required in psychology. Duncan (1912) stated that of the various definitions by different authors provides for a wide and varied number of descriptions of its use. Kohut (2011) stated, “Only a phenomenon that we can attempt to observe by introspection or by empathy with another’s introspection can be called psychological” (p. 46). Kohut (2011) contends that through the use of introspection and empathy, psychological observation is given depth and meaning. Where other forms of observation are possible, the nature of clinical psychology is given a broader understanding when empathy and introspection are used as the foundation for observation. The development of the idea of coping and defensive mechanisms is one of the central concerns of therapy. Where the biological aspects of a mental health issue can be addressed through pharmacology, the psychological pain that is associated with specific events in someone’s life cannot. Therefore, in finding ways for patients to cope with these issues, the clinical psychologist is integral involved in defining and assessing the different experiences that have developed over time. The individual and unique ways in which life has impacted a patient can be associated with others with similar experiences in order to relate ways in which to create defenses for the pain that have developed. According to Freudian theory, individuals develop unconscious methods of dealing with these types of issues. Through therapy with a good clinical psychologist, the individual can develop methods of coping with memories and experiences that exacerbate any biologically driven problems of mental health. Most problems of mental health as they are addressed in contemporary society are treated with both pharmacological treatments and talk therapy (Hentschel, 2004). Finally, the client-centered approach in psychology and counseling is an important aspect of the modern treatment of mental illness and can be seen as a practice in which the patient recognizes the problematic personal attitudes whereby the counselor suggests a redirection of human activities in social relationships. This approach has three main distinct elements. First, the ‘Predictable Process of Client-Centered Therapy’ has the main characteristic of promoting predictability in the therapeutic process. This is found in both statistical and clinical patterns of development. Second, the ‘Discovery of the Capacity of the Client’ represents a process where psychiatrists try to find out the characteristics, strengths, abilities, weaknesses and many other aspects of an individual’s life. Third, the ‘Client-Centered Nature of the Therapeutic Relationship’ focuses on the relationship between the client and the counselor. (Vincent 2005: Rogers, 1946) If the counselor can build a relationship of affection and understanding, then no matter how suspicious or distrustful the client is, the patient will eventually start trusting the counselor and allow the counselor to apply the treatment therapy. In summary, all these five articles show how to use different techniques from the history of psychological theory as well as the practice of psychiatry and counseling in order to develop treatment and therapy programs, which address personal mental illness and behavioral issues in society. Consequently, these theories of psychological treatment advance the ability of patients to live their lives peacefully and fully in wisdom. (Cherry, 2011) Conclusion Clinical psychology is a subdivision of psychology that was established mainly to help individuals with mental disabilities. Through the integration of a number of disciplines within the framework of scientific discovery, the nature of clinical psychology is to both treat and discover the causes of mental health problems. Through psychoanalysis frameworks of healing, the clinical psychologist is able to assess and evaluate a patient on the terms of his or her own specific issues. The primary type of treatment is through psychoanalysis. The origins of psychoanalysis can be traced back to 1896 when Witmer successfully solved a young boy’s spelling problem. Through establishing the success of working with the patient in terms of the needs that emerge from within the mental structures of the sociological position of the patient, the clinical psychologist deals with those mental frameworks through discussing meaning and through observations of behavior. As Wittmer developed his ideas on treating tangible, fixable problems as well as working towards finding ways to cope with untreatable issues, he developed a notion of care in which the patient could receive solutions and methods of self-discovery. This led to the establishment of the first psychology clinic, which has progressively developed to the present time. Division 12 is a section of APA, which mainly deals with clinical psychology. Clinical Psychologists mainly deal with assessments and psychotherapy. It may be considered that the nature of clinical psychology is to attend to the real world consequences of mental illness, the day-to-day pain and suffering addressed in such a way as to find meaning and foundation for ending that suffering. Through the concept of assessment, the clinical psychologist deals with the patient on an individual basis, placing their difficulties in context with known ideas on causes and conditions. Through standardized assessments, the clinical psychologist has tools with which to address the needs of the patient. With a vast historical chronology that supports the validity of clinical psychology, the nature of the discipline provides for its use in assessing and treating those who have mental health issues. This can be defined through all walks of life from the child with a learning disability to an adult with deep emotional issues stemming from any childhood trauma. Through experimentation and observational leaning, clinical psychology has advanced to the point of having proven its value within the area of treatment through psychoanalytical techniques. As stated by Kohut (2011), through observations that are both empathetic and introspective, the nature of treatment is in defining how humans are similar and connected to one another. The clinician is able to treat a patient because within the human condition are the variables from which mental health issues have developed. References Cherry, K. (2011, June 16). What is clinical psychology? Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/b/2011/06/16/what-is-clinical-psychology.htm Dunlap, K. (1912). The case against introspection. Psychological Review, 19, 404-413. Freud, Sigmund. (1910). The Origin and development of psychoanalysis. American Journal of Psychology, 21, 181-218. Hentschel, U. (2004). Defense mechanisms: Theoretical, research and clinical perspectives. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Hughes, J. N., & Youngson, S. (2009). Personal development and clinical psychology. Chichester, West Sussex: BPS Blackwell. Johns, C. (2009). Becoming a reflective practitioner. Chichester, U.K: Wiley-Blackwell. Kausler, D. H., Kausler, B. C., Krupsaw, J. A., & Kausler, D. H. (2007). The essential guide to aging in the twenty-first century: Mind, body, and behavior. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. Kohut, H. (2011). Search for self: Selected writings for Heinz Kohut 1978-1981. New York: Karnac Books. Palmer S, Woolfe R. (2000). Integrative and eclectic counseling and psychotherapy. California: SAGE. Richard, D. C. S., & Huprich, S. K. (2009). Clinical psychology: Assessment, treatment, and research. Amsterdam: Elsevier/AP. Roazen, P. (2002). The trauma of Freud: Controversies in psychoanalysis. New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction Publishers. Rogers, C.R (1946). Significant aspects of client-centered therapy. American Psychologist, 1, 415-422. Trull T. J. (2005). Clinical psychology, volume 866. Hampshire: Cengage Learning. Vincent, S. (2005). Being empathic: A companion for counsellors and therapists. Oxford: Radcliffe Pub. Walker, C. E., & Kanfer, F. H. (2007). The Handbook of clinical psychology: Theory, research, and practice. Homewood, Ill: Dow Jones-Irwin. Wayne W. (2008). Psychology: Themes and variations. Hampshire: Cengage Learning. Witmer, L. (1907). Clinical Psychology. Psychological Clinic, 1, 1-9. Read More