Soviet Anti-Zionism as a Manifestation of Soviet Anti-Semitism - Essay Example

Name: Tutor: Course: Date: Soviet anti-Zionism as a manifestation of soviet anti-Semitism Today, the question that anti-Zionism can, or cannot, be impeded by anti-Semitism is not the same debate that has occurred since the late 19th century. With the creation of Israel in 1948, the question of how the Jewish people will choose to define themselves takes the foreground. Should Israel become a state that defines itself by the sum of its citizens, or as belonging to the entire Jewish people? Still, removing anti-Semitism wholly from today’s question may be as irrational as dismissing the ideology of Jewish nationalism. Having existed before its modern description, anti-Semitism continues as a political weapon in today’s most debated and volatile global conflicts. Focus After WWII, and in an effort to sway the new nation of Israel against the West, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize its legitimacy. When their efforts failed, the Soviet Department of Propaganda reversed its standing support for Israel, official in 1967, by declaring Zionism as a form of racism and Zionist similar to Nazis. Statement of the thesis The Soviet Union, and previously Russia, provides a solid history of pogroms or sweeping elimination campaigns against its Jewish population; often changing or reversing its public opinion to accommodate a flexible political agenda. This paper will show the Soviet Union’s position of anti-Zionism is interwoven with roots deep into the soil of anti-Semitism from its beginning history with the Jewish people to its contemporary alliances. Section One: Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union In 1963 Zionism became a main cause for combating Jewish groups in the Russia state of Georgia. The emigration of Jews to Israel and other destinations, Aliyah, were most conducted for religious reasons. The Red Army was used to perpetrate heinous acts against the Russian Jews. The rise in anti-Semitism in Russia happened alongside the strengthening of the Orthodox Church and shaking off Mongolia rule in the middle ages (MacShane, 2008). Religious conversions were effected on Jews by Czar Ivan IV in territories that were newly conquered and greatly restricted Jewish trade. The 19th Century witnessed great socioeconomic changes in the Russian society that to a large extent impacted on the lives and economic activity of the Jewish population. The Jews concentrated in cities inside the Pale of Settlement. They focused on skilled trades because cultivation of land was less profitable. A majority of the Jews became impoverished while some established themselves in banking and credit. The Jews tried to succeed as peddlers, merchants, and handicrafts people. They were in constant competition with their Christian neighbors leading to the rise of anti-Semitism (Lipstadt, 2005). The Russian nobility and upper classes grew increasingly anti-Semitic. They associated the Jews with capitalism and modernization. Consequently anti-Semitic was associated with antisocialism and anti-capitalism. Hostility meted out to the Jews was prevalent in Russian Empire from 1881 to 1921. There were three pogroms waves that saw many Jews lose their lives and property. Jews who settled in Russia were victims of three pogroms on large-scale each of which went beyond the previous in savagery and scope. The pogroms within the 1880s in the course of confusion which was prevalent in Russia following the assassination of Czar Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya revolution organization that occurred on 13th, March, 1881 (Horowitz, 2006). People in the Anti-Jewish circles began a rumor that the Czar has been eliminated by the Jews and the government had directed attacks on them. The pogroms initially got support from revolutionary circles who considered this action as a first-time awakening of the masses that led the removal of existing regime. The program spread fast to surrounding villages as well as town-lets. The pogroms spread to other provinces of Taurida, Kherson, Poltava, Kiev, Chernigov, and Yekaterinoslav. The most critical atrocity was perpetrated in Kiev despite the presence of the governor and his officials (Klier & Shlomo, 1992). Police did not restrain the rioters at all. Eventually the government reacted against the rioters to the extent of opening fire on some of them. Several people died and scores were injured. The pogroms happened in geographical areas that are restricted, that is, eastern and southern Ukraine. There were factors that contributed to aggravate the situation like a tradition of anti-Jewish persecutions and hatred from the 17th and 18th centuries, the rebelliousness of masses, the rise of local intelligentsia and rural bourgeoisie; who considered Jews as dangerous rivals, and the presence seasonal workers in the railways, ports and factories. There was remission a remission following the pogroms in summer and spring (Klier & Shlomo, 1992). Jewish were killed, maimed and ruthlessly raped. There was an attitude of negligence in the administration that allowed the crimes to be committed among the Jewish people. Count D. Tolstoy, the new minister for interior in 1882 pointed to the fact of laxity among the provincial administration not allowing police intervention. The pogroms that occurred in the 1880s to a great extent impacted the Russian Jewry history. The government put in place a policy of discrimination that was systematic for the purpose of forcing out Jews from public and economic positions. This was attained using restrictive laws, percentage of admission to institutions or higher learning and to secondary schools, or using administrative pressure that reached its peak with the forceful expulsion of Jews from Moscow in 1891-92 (Horowitz, 2006). Jewish began to emigrate to the United States and other countries exiting Russia. One result of the program was the commencement of the nationalist and Zionist movement among Russian Jews that saw many young Jews joining the movement. 1881 was a turning point to the Russian Jewry as well as the entire Jewish population. The second phase of pogroms happened from 1903 to 1906. This wave was linked to the revolutionary agitation in Russia, as well as the first Russian revolution that occurred in 1905. The Russian government provided the reactionary press freedom to perpetuate unbridled anti-Jewish incitement in an effort to divert the anger of the masses from it towards the Jewish people and to portray the revolutionary movement as being the outcome of the machinations of the Jewish people (Lipstadt, 2005). Monarchist societies like the Double-Headed Eagle Society, the Union of Russian People, among others that were generally referred to as the Black Hundreds, played a pivotal role in the execution of those pogroms. The outcomes of this incitement were pogroms that were carried in Kishinev in the course of the passive of 1903, in the wake of fierce agitation carried out by the local newspaper that was anti-Semitic. The program instigated savage murders as well as mutilations of the dead and wounded. Close to 1,500 Jewish houses and shops were looted (Aaronson, 1996). The program causes a public outcry across the world. The Jewish youth came up with a self-defense movement. The organizers were drawn mainly from the Bund and the Zionist socialist parties. A program that happened in Gomel in 1903 September saw the self-defense group play an important role in saving the Jewish property and lives. The following year saw several pogroms carried out in Aleksandriya, Rovno, and Smela, as well as other places by recruits into the army preparing to go to war against Japan. Anti-Jewish propaganda intensified in 1905 and an atmosphere of terror characterized many towns. Occasionally the pogroms precipitated in reaction to revolutionary demonstration that was branded Jewish demonstrations. A pogrom that happened in the provincial capital of Zhitomir surpassed the others in magnitude (Wisse, 2008). The more severe pogrom of this phase occurred in November 1905 after the publication of the czar manifesto that promised the residents of Russia civic liberties as well as the Duma state establishment. Incitement broke out through Russia following the publication of the manifesto. The celebration was manifested among the radical and liberal elements within the Russian society, whereas the Jews who looked forward to being freed participated in the rejoicing prominently. Popular processions organized by reactionary circles turned into pogroms against the Jews. The severe pogrom happened in Odessa where more than three hundred people died and thousands were left wounded. Another pogrom with a high scale occurred in Yekaterinoslav where about one hundred and twenty Jews lost their lives (Horowitz, 2006). The people who perished in these pogroms are estimated to be about 800 people. The majority of participants in the pogroms were small shopkeepers, railway workers and craftsmen, as well as industrial workers. The looting of property was mainly perpetrated by peasants. The pogroms were instigated by government machinery. The local administration was instructed to provide the perpetrators of atrocities protected from the self-defense organized by the Jews. Commissions of inquiry constituted after the pogroms clearly showed the inactivity of the military and the police forces. More pogroms happened in 1906 (Horowitz, 2006). The first pogrom happened in June in Bialystok. Close to eighty Jews perished and the mob murdered and looted before the eyes of the police and military forces. Instead they opened fire on the Jews. The pogrom happened in the course of the first Duma that set up a commission of inquiry in Bialystok. The responsibility for the pogroms was placed on the local authority. Another pogrom happened in August in Siedlce and was amazingly carried out by the military and police forces. It led to the deaths of thirty Jews and scores were wounded. Following the suppressions of Russian revolution, the pogroms halted until the collapse of the old regime in 1917 (Klier & Shlomo, 1992). The pogroms that occurred from 1903 to 1906 was an eye-opener for Jews in Europe and encouraged the formation of self-defense movements among the Jews and encouraged the emigration of Jewish for the Second Aliyah and the coming up of the Hashomer society in Erez Israel. The third phase of pogroms happened from 1917 to 1921 and surpassed the previous outbreaks in gravity and scope. This violence against the Jews was linked to the civil war and revolutions that occurred in Eastern Europe in the course of this period. The riots were spearheaded by soldiers from the disintegrating czarist army. Unruly acts were directed towards the Jews by drunkards as well as looting. The pogroms were carried out using the slogan “Strike at the bourgeoisie and the Jews” (Masalha, 2007). The Red Army from Ukraine participated in the pogroms. The Soviets put in place measures to stem out pogroms within the Red Army ranks after some episode of confusion. In 1919 the Ukrainian army carried out military pogroms in Zhitomir, Berdichev and other towns. The climax of the pogroms occurred on 15th February following a massacre at Proskurov where 1700 Jews were killed within hours. Another 600 were killed in Felshtin the following day. The perpetrated went scot free without punishment and Ukrainian solders regarded themselves as mandated to wipe out the Jews. Simon Petlyura, commander of armed forces and prime minister of Ukraine, was considered by the Jews responsible for the pogroms (Friedländer, 1997). Chaos that occurred in Ukraine in 1919 caused the peasants to form bands to fight against the Red army. Commanders in charge of these bands sometimes took control of entire regions. The Jews were terrorized, extorted, robbed and murdered by the peasants. The ataman Grigoryev who seceded from the army in May 1919 with his men was responsible for instigating pogroms in forty communities as well as the deaths of close to 6000 Jews in 1919. He was put to death by ataman Makho who spearheaded a peasant rebellion in the east of Ukraine and wanted to control his men from meting out violence to the Jews. A pogrom perpetuated by peasants in Trostyanets in 1919 May saw about four hundred Jews being slain to death. The White Army that was counterrevolutionary also committed a wave of pogroms being led by General A.I. Denikin. The soldiers from this group directed savage attacks on the Jews. In September of 1919 about 1,500 Jews were killed. The White Army also carried out pogroms in other regions in Russia like Mongolia, Belorussia and Siberia. The Red Army gained control of Ukraine from 1920-21 and brutality against the Jews continued. 4,000 Jews were massacred and the whole town set on fire (Aaronson, 1996). Many towns were destroyed by the anti-Jewish movement and only the military inadequacy of the attackers aborted what would have been Ukrainian Jewry holocaust. Many places saw the Jewish self-defense formation in many regions. The self-defense organization could not match up to the military strength of the attackers and hence could not repulse them. The pogroms of 1917-21 were a shock to East European Jewry and the world Jewry. The pogroms inspired the Jews to create an independent and powerful Jewish force in a homeland for the Jewish people. This inspiration found its manifestation in the Zionist movement, the Haganah in Erez Israel, and the He-Halutz movement (Tolts, 2004). Zionism is a political and national movement of the Jews and Jewish culture supporting the establishment of a homeland for the Jews in a territory defined as historic. Section Two: After WWII-The Refuseniks and the Six Day War The late 1948 the Soviet Union switched sides in the middle-east conflict pitting Israel against the Arabs. In the course of the Cold War it supported Arabs regimes that were against Israel. The Soviet Union official position and its satellite states and agencies were that Zionism was a means employed by the Americans and the Jews for racist imperialism (Wisse, 2008). While Israel emerged as a close ally of the Wes, haters of Zionism raised fears of internal opposition and dissent. In the later period of the Cold War Soviet Jews were perceived to be possible traitors, a security liability or Western sympathizers. The Communist leadership clumped down Jewish organizations and decreed Zionist as an ideological enemy. The end of 1964 saw increase war and terror on the borders of Israel, commencing with the establishment of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), which supported and encouraged guerrilla tactics against Israelis. In the year 1964, Israel accomplished its work on the National Water Carrier, which was meant to divert water from River Jordan into southern Israel hence fulfilling Ben-Gurion’s dream of making Negev region cultivatable (Horowitz, 2006). The Water Carriers became a reason of tension between Syria and Israel and Arabs tried to divert the water from the reach of Israelis. Terrorist raids across Egyptian borders intensified, and Egypt moved its troops in the Sinai Peninsula and barred Israel from accessing the Straits of Tiran. There was hostility from Jordan, Syria and Egypt all directed towards Israel. Israel did not wait to be attacked but instead pre-empted an attack in June in 1967 that wiped out most of Egyptian air force. In a span of six days the Israel military had struck a big blow to the Arab countries and seized the old city of Jerusalem, the Golan Heights from Syria and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt. From 1967 to 1970 Israel had to fight off sporadic fights from the PLO and Egyptian forces (Troy, 2012). The PLO wanted to eliminate the Zionist entity and Egypt wanted to recover the Sinai Peninsula. Israel reacted to the military attacks and the two sides counted heavy losses. In the course of the war, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol succumbed to a heart attack while in his office and his place was taken by Golda Meir. This was the first prime minister of Israel. The war of attrition was finished in 1970 when Israel and Egypt signed a cease-fire agreement. There were no gains on the part of Egypt since the terms remained the same as in 1967. The Soviet anti-Semitic referred to a propaganda doctrine propagated in the Soviet Union in the course of the Cold War and it became intense following the Six Day War in 1967. It was sponsored by the Communist Party department of propaganda and KGB in the Soviet Union. It referred to Zionism as racism and portrayed Zionists as being similar to Nazis. Consequently, persecution that was both unofficial and government sponsored became deeply entrenched in the society and was a fact for many years. Soviet Jews ensured many hardships like exclusion from universities, government and certain professional jobs (Troy, 2012). Some Jews felled obligated to change their names to hide their identity in order to avoid this persecution. Refuseniks referred to Soviet Jews who were denied permission to leave and emigrate to Israel. Many Jews in the Soviet Union applied for exit visa to leave for Israel following Israel victory in the Six Day War of 1967. A majority was turned down while just a few were granted permission. The reason given for rejected to give Refuseniks visa was that they were in possession of classified information that was a threat to the security of the Soviet Union if they were allowed to leave to another destination. During the 1970s one of the leading refusenik movement spokesmen was Natan Sharanksy. He was denied an exit visa and ended up being an international symbol of the struggle for freedom and human rights by the refuseniks (Judge, 1992). He helped in establishing Moscow Helsinki Group that engaged in struggle for rights for emigration in the larger setting of human rights in Soviet Union. He was charged and convicted of treason and espionage hence enhancing the Refusenik struggle for freedom for all Soviet Jewry. The Soviet Jews became more determined than ever to emigrate from the Soviet Union. The Soviet must have feared brain drain and did not like Soviet citizens or foreigners to understand that many people liked the West. Through punishing the Refuseniks they hoped that others would not desire to apply for visas. The refuseniks despite not leaving the country were forced out of their jobs hence exposing them to being charged as social parasites. This was a serious crime within the Soviet Union (Gross, 2001). Majority of Western national has a limit on immigration, but Israel gives automatic citizenship to any Jew who wishes to settle in Israel. Therefore, the refuseniks had a legitimate destination if allowed to leave. Mass emigration of the Jews was not politically desirable for the Soviet leadership. The crackdown in 1970 that drew strong international condemnation caused the Soviet administration to increase the quota for emigration. The diploma tax was imposed on the would-be emigrants who had gotten higher education in Russia. In some circumstances the levy as high as 20 annual salaries (MacShane, 2008). This tax was used to combat the brain drain as a result of the Soviet Jews leaving for other destinations. Kremlin revoked the tax after international protests but persistently imposed other limitations. Majority of the Jews allowed to leave the Soviet Union chose other destinations like the United States apart from the perceived homeland of Israel. 71,000 Soviet Jews were allowed to leave in 1989 where 12,117 left for Israel (Wisse, 2008). Following the adoption of the Jackson-Vanik amendment, close to 1million Soviet Jews have successfully emigrated. Frustrated and angry that the United States attempted to dictate the Soviet policy using the Stevenson Amendment and Jackson-Vanik Amendment, the Soviet leadership imposed measures to control the refusenik movement and thwart the Americans ability to help Soviet Jews. The series of taxes were meant to punish the refuseniks. A thirty percent tax was imposed on any money sent to the Soviet Union from any destination abroad. This tax together with the tax on emigration only made the Soviet Jews to get 40 cents for every dollar sent. In the year 1976 a 90% tax was placed on any money or gifts being sent to refuseniks (Frank, 2008). This made Soviet Jewry advocates to stop sending money to refuseniks. The taxes placed a heavy burden on the refuseniks who relied on the money from the West for subsistence. The refuseniks more often than not got demoted or lost their jobs once they applied for exit visa. The refuseniks relied on material and financial support from each other besides the West to survive. Refuseniks who distributed products from the West to other refuseniks commanded power among the refusenik circles. The Soviet administration continued its crackdown on refuseniks through arresting them on false accusations, shutting their telephone services and intercepting their mail. The KGB also used physical abuse to intimidate the refuseniks (Tolts, 2004). The Soviet administration hoped that using corporate terror would completely silence the refuseniks. However, violence emboldened the refusenik determination to resist the Soviet oppression. The taxing policies within the Soviet Union made it cost-prohibitive sending money to the refuseniks. Any help in terms of products or money had to be handed in physically by going to the Soviet Union. Surprisingly the Soviet administration allowed Soviet Jewry advocates access into the Soviet Union. Section Three: Russia and the Arab-Israel conflict The Soviet Union played a pivotal role in the Arab-Israeli conflict where it was a major part of the Cold War. Whereas Soviet socialism did not absolutely extinguish the Jewish identity; it however, weakened a level of cultural cohesiveness. The closure of synagogues and other Jewish cultural institutions like schools, theaters, and periodicals were carried out with the egalitarianism ideological context (Marcus, 2007). The regime threaten the Jewish and Judaism culture while enforcing policies that enhanced the growth a modern secular state. Anti-Zionism oppose the nationalism of Jews supporting the idea of the Jewish nation state located in a territory referred to as the Land of Israel. In the modern times anti-Zionism refers to the opposition of establishing a Jewish state within Palestine. Modern anti-Semitism was conceived out of the tumultuous period in Russia and Eastern Europe whereby feudalism was replaced by capitalist development (Alexander & Bogdanor, 2006). Anti-Semitism has been described by one scholar as an outcome of despair of the ruined bourgeoisie that sought scapegoats. The constant memory usurer was used to divert anger against capitalism to the Jews. The Jews had earlier been compelled to venture into money lending and petty trades. In the Soviet Union anti-Semitism scapegoating was provoked and deliberately organized by the Tsar as a way of weakening and dividing the struggles of workers. This is the cause of pogroms witnessed from 1881. These anti-Jews riots spread to Eastern Europe countries and Poland. Zionism was a secular rather than a religious movement from its inception (Gelvin, 2007). The basic concept of Zionism was the belief that anti-Semitism would not be defeated. Zionist were for the idea that non-Jews and Jews could not ever live together hence supported the establishment of a Jewish state. The Soviet Union for a short time supported the idea of establishing of Israel in a speech in 1947 that did not appear in the Soviet Media. The Soviet consent was very important in the UN Security Council to the UN British Mandate of Palestine partitioning that led to the establishment of the State of Israel. The Soviet Union recognized the State of Israel de jure three days after declaring its independence. Moreover, the Soviet Union permitted Czechoslovakia to continue providing arms to the Jewish troops in the course of Arab-Israel war of 1948 (Gross, 2001). By the elapse of 1957 the Soviet Union switched sides concerning the Arab-Israeli conflict. In the course of the Cold War the Soviet Union overwhelmingly supported Arab functions against that were fighting Israel. Zionist was viewed as racist imperialism. The world ‘Jew’ was often avoided in the media while being critical of Israel actions which the Soviets regarded as chauvinism, racism, among others. The world Israel was used instead of Jew in order to portray a harsh criticism as being anti-Zionism and not anti-Semitism (MacShane, 2008). The Soviet media controversially applied the term fascism to refer to Israel nationalism while depicting political events. Jews consists of 0.16% of the Russian population as recorded by the 2002 census. Many Jews in Russia are secular and gives themselves a Jew identity through ethnicity as opposed to Jewish identity. However, the interest concerning Jews identity and Jewish tradition practice among the Russian Jews is intensifying. Synagogues are being set up in Russian cities that have Jewish populations (Wisse, 2008). Many of the Jews in Russia have their relatives in Israel. Following the Soviet Union disintegration, democratization in the former Soviet Union has come with a fair share of tragic irony for minority groups particularly the Jews. The demise of the Soviet Era of repression exposed the Jews who remained to anti-Semitism resurgence in the former Soviet Union. Mass anti-Semitic incidents have not returned to Russia or any of its regions. Anti-Semitism is a form of xenophobia expression in the post-Soviet Russia and it is manifested even among politicians. Anti-Semitic speeches, articles and pronouncement are a common occurrence in Russia. Economic challenges leads to some people claiming that the problems are as result of the Jews in the government, the media and the banking industry. It is usually grassroots and scapegoating anti-Semitic (Horowitz, 2006). The government has not rightly come out to punish anti-Semitic offenders and some local administration support. With continued discrimination is hard to tell whether Russian can separate anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism. Conclusion Russia has come out publicly to deny the any kind of accusation that anti-Zionism propaganda is laced with anti-Semitic foundations. Claiming that as Lenin and the Bolshevik Party opposed Zionism, Russia has been against it from its beginnings. Communism ideology cannot tolerate a Jewish state hence anti-Semitism in Russia geared towards supporting anti-Zionism despite previously supporting the establishment of a Jewish State. The irony of Zionism is that it transformed the oppressed Jews of Europe into oppressors of the majority in Palestine. Zionist condoned separation and discrimination as the natural principle of humanity. Zionism has been contaminated by racism and the initial cause is not the same. Jews has immigrated to many parts of the world especially America. Still a good population of them has made aliyah to Israel or has relatives living in Israel. The Zionist movement is very much alive while anti-Semitic sentiments are still being witnessed in the modern Russia although there few cases of violence against the Jews and their property. It is hard to separate the Russian belief in anti-Semitism that does not translate to anti-Zionism. There is plenty of evidence that show that the Russian history is firmly interwoven with the Palestine history. Russia remains an important member in the peace process in the Middle East. References Alexander, Edward and Bogdanor, Paul (2006). The Jewish Divide over Israel. London: Transaction. pp. 251–2. Aaronson, Ran (1996). "Settlement in Eretz Israel – A Colonialist Enterprise? "Critical" Scholarship and Historical Geography". Israel Studies (Indiana University Press) 1 (2): 214–229. Frank, Ben G., (2008), A Travel Guide to Jewish Russia & Ukraine, Pelican Publishing. Friedländer, Saul (1997), The Years of Persecution, 1933-1939. Vol. 1 of Nazi Germany and the Jews. New York: Harper Collins. 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