Political and Administrative Developments in the Sultanate of Oman - Report Example

The Political and Administrative Developments in the Sultanate of Oman Since 1970 Name: Roll No: Class: Subject: Teacher: Date: 18th February 2008 University The Political and Administrative Developments in the Sultanate of Oman since 1970 Table of Contents The Political and Administrative Developments in the Sultanate of Oman since 1970 2 Introduction 3 Status in Oman before 1970 5 Establishment of the Modernization (Sultan Qaboose Era) 8 Investigation of Development in the Political Aspects 13 Development of the Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla) 14 Development of the Consultative Council (Majlis ash-Shura) 14 Development of the State Consultative Council (Majlis al-Ishtishari) 15 Development of Electoral Law 16 Development of Personal liberties 16 Development of Basic Law 17 Development of Legislation regulating the exercise of rights 18 Development of Women Rights in Oman 18 Development of Economic Freedom 19 The national economy is based upon justice and the policies regarding free economy. It can only be obtained by a good and prosperous link between the governmental, communal and private functions. For all kinds of economic activities that are for the well-being of population and the state and those who follow all the implemented laws are given full freedom. The government of Sultanate of Oman promotes saving schemes and supervises for the principles regarding credits. The natural resources present in the Sultanate are under the ownership of government of the state or we can say that they belong to the state (Herb, 1999, p. 57). The state itself is accountable for their protection and appropriate uses for the betterment and increase of national finance. The state also holds itself responsible for the protection of public properties. The nationals of the state are also forced to preserve it. Like public possessions, the private possessions are also secured. No one is allowed to damage them. They can be seized by the government for the communal benefits but by following the rules set for them (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 173). The person whose property is seized can get a small compensation for the property that is a negative aspect. For inheritance, the rules set by the Shariah of Islam are followed. Women are given half of the share in inheritance as compared to men. For applying taxes and other public dues, justice is done and they are taken for the betterment and improvement of national economy. 19 Investigation of Development in the Administrative Aspects 20 Council of Ministers 20 Development of Local Government  20 Development of Legal System 21 a. Development of Law for Associations 21 b. Development of Media Laws 22 c. Development of Personal Status Law 22 d. Development of Labour Law 22 Development of Judiciary 23 Development of Courts 23 Conclusion 25 References 28 Introduction The Sultanate of Oman, a gulf country of 2,017,591 people of which 1,480,531 are Omanis, passed through certain phases of development and advancement to reach its present state of modernization and transformation. The phases of development and progress include the political and administrative developments as these aspects have foremost importance in gaining an overall modernized status. A country, which is developed politically and administratively, has fair chances to move forward to be a part of the progress race. Oman started gaining an advanced status with the beginning of the change of the change of government on July 23rd, 1970. The first strategy adopted by the state of Sultanate of Oman in 1971 was to develop long lasting political ties with Arab and other countries which were already developed and advanced in terms of modernism and latest technologies (Allen, 1986, 92). Sultan Qaboose bin Said had a good reputation among Arab countries and was duly received with greetings and good wishes. Sultan Qaboose was an optimist and improved the governmental and ministerial structures through out the Sultanate of Oman. His government also took suitable measures for the formation and implementation of economics, internal protection, national security and oil issues. Internationally Qaboose bin Said is considered to play a crucial role in the development of Sultanate of Oman. From 1970, the Sultanate of Oman has experienced financial, administrative, communal and political improvement. Due to all these developments, Sultanate of Oman can be called a much better state as compared to its previous status before 1970. The Sultanate of Oman gained its present status because of the struggles of Qaboose and his outstanding polices that he adopted for the welfare and establishment of Sultanate of Oman. In political developments, Majlis Ash'Shura (Consultative Assembly) was developed that consists of five more committees that work under it. They are: the Legal Committee, the Economic Committee, the Committee for Health and Social Affairs, the Committee for Education and Culture and the Committee of Services and Development of the Local Communities. Majlis al-Ishtishari (State Consultative Council) was also created by the government in 1982 to help in important decisions that the government should take for the prosperity and advancement of nation (Allen, 1986, 96). Majlis al-Dawla (The Council of State) was also developed for the advisory purposes and for a source of advisory communication between government and citizens of the state. The Sultanate of Oman also developed in terms of personal liberties, legislation regulating the exercise of rights, Media laws, electoral laws, personal status laws, labour laws and laws on associations. In administrative developments, there are a number of improvements and enhancements in the fields of education, health, water resources, housing, telecommunications, legislative branch, judiciary and courts. The Sultanate of Oman has been advancing in the fields of administration and politics from the start of the era of Qaboose bin Said in 1970. Before 1970, the Sultanate was considered mediocre and below the line of modernization. But, after 1970, there was a drastic change in the status of the state and it started developing because of the workable policies of the new government of Qaboose bin Said in 1970 who took over the charge of the state. The coming chapters contain a detailed description regarding the political and administrative developments in the Sultanate of Oman since 1970. Status in Oman before 1970 Status in Sultanate of Oman before 1970 was not of a developed nation. Oman was considered one of those countries which were fully unprivileged and dispossessed before 1970 because it was not making appropriate use of its natural resources. Oman was socially, economically, politically and administratively weak country but after the leadership transformation in 1970, it started gaining international status in terms of success and improvement. Qaboose bin Said with the support of his accomplished and righteous policies and appropriate steps changed the whole stature of Sultanate of Oman (Allen, 1986, 101). He put the country on the track of modernism and advancement. The government working under Qaboose bin Said made Sultanate of Oman a model for the other nations of the world which are aspiring to develop and improve. Said ibn Taimur ruled Oman between 1932-1970. During his rule, he increased debt on the Sultanate of Oman (Allen, 1986, 101). For the creation of an autonomous state, the oil revenues created in the state needed to be explored but the tribes that were resided there were not supportive for such kinds of exploration. In 1954, exploration teams were sent to the tribal areas for the exploration purposes but they met with a strong resistance because the tribes considered this act of government as a contravention of the treaty of 1920 named as As Sib. A new movement known as Oman’s liberation movement was there which was backed by Saudi Arabia and was pioneered by the new imam’s brother (Huntington, 1968, p. 88). This movement was ended by the British intervention in the area. The Sultan was more concerned to his personal freedom. He enforced laws that were unnecessarily strict and obsolete, he allowed communal capital punishments and he backed slavery. Because of his interest in his own concerns and his isolation left the Sultanate of Oman in an underdeveloped country. In 1960s, an insurgency was there in Dhufar in which Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO) who got help from Marxist South Yemen took over the charge of the insurgency which was pioneered by the jibalis who rebelled against Sultan’s restrictive policies. This rebellious movement made Said ibn Taimur deprived of his rule because his son, Qaboose bin Said was with a better solution to control this rebellion while the Sultan was gain going to use a cruel solution with the help of Armed forces. Sultanate of Oman is rich in oil resources but before 1970, the Omani nationals were unable to realize the full usefulness and credibility of their natural treasure. The Sultanate of Oman was also considered an isolated state by other countries of the world due to its lack of political and administrative developments. The Sultanate of Oman manufactured other products also along with petroleum products such as non-metallic mineral commodities and eatable products before 1970. People of the state were also involved in the exercising of conventional handicrafts such as weaving, ceramics building, boat construction and gold and silver works (Huntington, 1968, p. 57). It was planned in 1970 that the government should take suitable measures for the improvement and integration of country’s plants outside Muscat and Salalah. Five year plans for the welfare and improvement of state were also thought of after 1970 but before 1970, people of Sultanate of Oman were living a life free of any kind of modernism because the rulers were not concerned with the improvements, they were only interested in their own powers and economic benefits. Moreover, there was lack of knowledge and education among the masses due to which people were unable to make suitable policies for the improvements and developments. The Sultanate of Oman also employed substandard ways of fishing and farming as a means of existence. The population at that time was more or less one million. The Sultanate comprised only three primary schools which were for educating the masses; this number shows the importance given to education at that time (Huntington, 1968, p. 68). The country had only one hospital which is evident of its backwardness due to which the country was deprived of proper medical facilities. As far as roads are concerned, only a few kilometres of land roads were there due to which there was a lot of trouble in terms of transportation. Because of trading of raw oil, the Sultanate of Oman got a good revenue and there was hope of developments but the rulers of that time were not capable to bring about the transformation so it was only possible after 1970, when Qaboose came to power, that the state start developing in terms of economical, political, administrative and social gains. It was only possible due to selling of oil with the appropriate strategies set by the government of Qaboose bin Said. In 1950’s the first area containing oil resources was discovered which was located in south and was called Marmul (Huntington, 1968, p. 92). This area was discarded due to its low quality of crude oil but after the establishment of Qaboose’s government, the crude oil gained from this reservoir was utilized properly. Establishment of the Modernization (Sultan Qaboose Era) With the start of Qaboose’s rule in the Sultanate of Oman, the state government prioritized economic and political issues by planning about them. Qaboose bin Said also delivered a number of speeches regarding these issues. He turned the name of Oman from Oman to Sultanate of Oman. He established a number of ministries such as Interior, Justice, Health, Education, Labour and Economy ministries. He also selected a new flag for the representation of nation. The government unified Muscat, Oman and Dhofar (Allen, 1986, 102). Qaboose bin Said after coming into power allowed all exiled leaders and dignitaries to return back to the Sultanate. In terms of political developments, he also highlighted the significance of a separate Foreign Policy for the state and of setting up good and strong ties with all the other Arab States. Qaboose bin Said described various areas of the state which were urgently in need of infrastructure and financial improvement in his speeches in the years 1971 and 1972 on the occasions of National Day. There were a number of unessential rules for travelling, trading and utilization of farming and agricultural technology. The government gave utmost importance to the construction of roads, innovatory and developed ideas for agricultural purposes, the improvement of health and educational services for the common citizen and development of telecommunications technology all over the Sultanate of Oman (International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003, p. 118). Water supply was also significant for the state so, it was also given utmost importance because it also was a major part of development. The government also conducted a survey regarding the presence of resources in the state. Because of oil resources and its trade, the government was successful in implementing all the policies quickly regarding modernization. In 1976, there was a five year plan regarding the improvement of infrastructure and economy of the Sultanate. The government also thought about the other found resources except oil because the country’s revenue can not be properly managed with only one resource so he gave importance to withdrawal of resources from underground, industrialization, farming and fisheries (O’Reilly, 1998, p. 82). The government wanted to invest in more than one fields to promote the nation manifold. The new government realized the need for education for the development of Sultanate of Oman, that’s the reason of establishing a number of educational institutions all over the Sultanate for the betterment of the residents (Miller, 1997, p. 17). The government of Oman established the National Local Community Development Program (NLCDP) in 1976. Educational improvement was one of the top most priorities of this development program. Libraries for adults and Quranic studies schools were developed by the NLCDP with the collaboration of the Ministry of Justice and Awqat & Islamic Affairs. The Teaching Training Institute (TTI) was set up for the guidance of Omani teachers and instructors in 1977. Sultan Qaboose University was launched in 1986 (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 169). The Ministry of higher education was developed in 1994 by education initiative by the royal decree that was updated. The Omani government arranged for the coming back of educated Omani nationals that were residents in the foreign countries. This step also gave a boost to modernization of Sultanate of Oman. Educational reforms helped Oman to proceed towards development and progress. The government along with the nationals of the Sultanate of Oman identified the need of a particular Omani national identity for the purpose of being identified as a nation. A national identity is also required for the promotion of a nation. The first two decades of the rule of Qaboose bin Said are important for the discovery of a national identity that was required for the development of state. The government of Sultanate of Oman was victorious in the identification of a separate identity for the state building because of his Sultanate’s rich resources, improvement of infrastructure and educational progress (International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003, p. 118). After this functioning, the government introduced the Majlis Ash'Shura which was a consulting assembly in which people were allowed to give opinions for certain issues of the state. Qaboose bin Said after taking over the ruling position of Sultanate of Oman rejected the policies adopted by his father and set the Sultanate on the track of development and progress. According to his opinion, no gain could be achieved by isolating a state; proper foreign affairs must be there for the advancement of a country. He solved the Dhufar rebellion problem quite outstandingly. Qaboose bin Said got training at Royal Military Academy which is located in Britain (International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003, p. 119). He took charge of progress of his nation. Qaboose arranged for British personnel and technological apparatus to eradicate the Dhufar rebellion. The Sultanate’s first cabinet was allocated in late 1970s (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 169). This cabinet was established for proceeding forward in terms of structuring the modernized government body. Qaboose bin Said held himself responsible for the services of prime minister and defence and foreign affairs minister. The government of Qaboose bin Said also took suitable steps for the promotion of oil resources and used policies for the increase of revenue that should be gained with the help of oil that was frequently present in natural form in the Sultanate of Oman. The Sultanate of Oman attached itself with the Arab League and the United Nations in 1971. It was also involved in the establishment of Gulf Cooperation Council in 1981 (Allen, 1986, 110). The Gulf Cooperation Council was developed for the promotion of collaboration in the fields of finance, politics and national defence. The Sultanate of Oman has good and strong ties with the United States and United Kingdom since the era of the rule of Qaboose bin Said. Investigation of Development in the Political Aspects After 1970, a number of developments were made to modernize the Omani society, out of which the councils played an important role as people were asked in the communicative processes between government and public. All of these developments were made for the welfare and betterment of Omani nationals. The organized institutions were successful in most of the aspects. Development of the Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla) Majlis al-Dawla was developed in 1997 and is a consultative entity. It ensures a communicative process between Government and citizens. The Council has 59 associates including 9 women (Herb, 1999, p. 67). All of these associates are employed by the Sultan. All the associates are appointed for three years. It is responsible for suggesting proposals for the support of investment and for the betterment of political and administrative functions. All the legal, social and economic issues come under the supervision of this consulting entity. Development of the Consultative Council (Majlis ash-Shura) Majlis ash-Shura was developed in 1991 and it has the responsibilities of recommending appropriate legislation. Like Majlis al-Dawla, it is also a consultative entity. This Council is answerable to the Sultan and Council of Ministers (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 176). The council has 83 associates who are appointed for four years. Its positions are divided in 61 provinces of the state. There are five reputable committees attached to the Majlis. The committees are: 1. The Legal Committee 2. The Economic Committee 3. The Committee for Health and Social Affairs 4. The Committee for Education and Culture 5. The Committee of Services and Development of the Local Communities From the above listing, it is evident that the duties of council are manifold. They give consultation in the fields of legislation, economics, health, social affairs, education, culture and services and development of residential communities (Herb, 1999, p. 69). Qaboose bin Said in one of his speeches said about Majlis ash-Shura, “This experiment of choosing the membership of the Majlis ash-Shura representing the wilayats has provided us with a new dimension from which we can benefit in the future life of the Majlis, in particular, the assessment of the proportion of members necessary for striking the required nationwide representational balance.”(Miller, 1997, p. 17) Development of the State Consultative Council (Majlis al-Ishtishari) Majlis al-Ishtishari came into being in 1981. It was established when the first phase of financial expansion was over and a nationwide rail and road network was created. Qaboose bin Said started the democratic establishment of institutions with the inauguration of Majlis al-Ishtishari. This council comprised 45 associates, out of which 17 were employed from the central government, 11 were appointed from the private subdivision and 17 from the wilayats of Majlis ash-Shura. The appointed people working under this council were highly expert as they kept the eligibility to work the best for their particular areas. The number of associates increased by adding 10 more to 45 associates in 1983 (Herb, 1999, p. 73). The major role this council was to provide advice to the government for the works of development and improvement. Development of Electoral Law Restrictive policies for voting have been removed since 2003. Every citizen whose age is 21 can cast his/her vote. From 1997, women are allowed to stand for the elections of consultative council. Elections are held by majority vote. Armed forces and defence personnel are not allowed to cast their votes. Development of Personal liberties Individual liberty is made certain by the Basic Law and regulated by laws.  All citizens are considered equal before the law. Law is not concerned to the gender, origin, colour, language, religious conviction, sect, dwelling or communal standing. According to the law of Sultanate of Oman, illogical taking into custody and imprisonment are proscribed (Herb, 1999, p. 51). Pragmatically, the law enforcement officials are not necessarily to get hold of an arrest warrant in advance.  The Basic Law assures liberty of legislative body. For all community assemblage, government authorization is needed and the government also keeps the power to put a stop to prearranged communal gatherings devoid of any application procedure.  Autonomy of views and feelings regarding any social issue within the restrictions of the law is also admitted by the Basic Law (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 173). Disapproval of Sultan and his policies is not allowed by individuals as well as Media. People are fully allowed to exercise their religious liberty. Bodily and mental torment is not allowed. People have all the constitutional rights to seek guidance, appeal, and legislation. With the passage of time, human rights and laws related to human rights have developed predictably. Development of Basic Law The basic law developed to be implemented after 1970 and was followed accordingly. The latest laws are given in official gazette. (The Oman Update, 2007, 10) “The Sultanate of Oman is an independent, Arab, Islamic, fully sovereign state with Muscat as its capital. The religion of the State is Islam and the Islamic Shariah is the basis of legislation. Arabic is the official language of the State. The law shall determine the State’s Flag, its Emblem, its decorations and medals and its National Anthem. The system of government is a hereditary Sultanate in which succession passes to a male descendant of Sayyid Turki bin Said bin Sultan. It is a condition that the male who is chosen to rule should be an adult Muslim of sound mind and a legitimate son of Omani Muslim parents. Within three days of the position of Sultan becoming vacant, the Ruling Family Council shall determine upon who will succeed to the Throne. If the Ruling Family Council does not agree upon a successor, the Defence Council shall confirm the appointment of the person designated by the Sultan in his letter to the Family Council. Before exercising his powers the Sultan shall swear the following oath at a joint session of the Oman and Defence Councils:” “I swear by Almighty God to respect the Basic Law of the State and the Laws, to fully protect the interests and freedoms of the citizens, and to preserve the independence of the country and its territorial integrity.” The Government shall continue to conduct its business as usual until the Sultan is chosen and begins to exercise his powers. Rule in the Sultanate shall be based on justice, Shura Consultation and equality. Citizens shall have the right to take part in public affairs - in accordance with this Basic Law and the conditions and circumstances defined in the Law.” Development of Legislation regulating the exercise of rights Political parties are against the law in the Sultanate of Oman. For community’s involvement, several Majlis are established for the proper consultation of matters. Development of Women Rights in Oman The Sultanate of Oman, has specified Omani women the rights to vote in Majlis A' Shura and to also go in front in certain legislative positions of which was unheard of in the past. There has also been a growth in Omani society as women are taking presidential positions in the private sector as business women. The Sultanate of Oman consented to the UN Women's Convention in February 2002 and the establishment later declared that a commission had been set to encourage its execution (International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003, p. 119). However, women continued to be subject to discrimination both in national law and in practice, notably in terms of personal status, employment and participation in public life. Development of Economic Freedom The national economy is based upon justice and the policies regarding free economy. It can only be obtained by a good and prosperous link between the governmental, communal and private functions. For all kinds of economic activities that are for the well-being of population and the state and those who follow all the implemented laws are given full freedom. The government of Sultanate of Oman promotes saving schemes and supervises for the principles regarding credits. The natural resources present in the Sultanate are under the ownership of government of the state or we can say that they belong to the state (Herb, 1999, p. 57). The state itself is accountable for their protection and appropriate uses for the betterment and increase of national finance. The state also holds itself responsible for the protection of public properties. The nationals of the state are also forced to preserve it. Like public possessions, the private possessions are also secured. No one is allowed to damage them. They can be seized by the government for the communal benefits but by following the rules set for them (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 173). The person whose property is seized can get a small compensation for the property that is a negative aspect. For inheritance, the rules set by the Shariah of Islam are followed. Women are given half of the share in inheritance as compared to men. For applying taxes and other public dues, justice is done and they are taken for the betterment and improvement of national economy.   Investigation of Development in the Administrative Aspects There were no ministries and councils before 1970; it was only possible after the arrival of new government in 1970 that the governmental system of Sultanate of Oman started converting into a modernized one where the ministries, councils and law systems were established for the betterment of population as well as for international acceptable status. Council of Ministers   The sultan of the Sultanate of Oman is responsible for employing the ministers for the councils. The council of ministers sets objectives and policies for the advancement and improvement of various aspects of the state such as commercial, social, political and administrative. The council of ministers is also responsible for suggesting new laws for the development of state. The council also talks over the issues of improvement plans and gives proposals for the other ministries for the implementation of these plans. The council keeps an eye on the execution of laws, rules and regulations and also monitors the other agreements, treaties and the judgements made by the courts of the state. Development of Local Government  Sultanate of Oman is separated into 59 provinces which are called wilayats. These provinces are controlled by Walis who are the executives of the provinces and perform the duties assigned by the government. Fifteen Walis are appointed for the areas of Muscat, Dhofar and Musandam who are answerable to the appointed Governors. The Governors of Muscat and Dhufar are also appointed as Ministers of the state (Herb, 1999, p. 48). Other parts of the state are also controlled by forty four Walis who report to the Ministry of the Interior. Forty five municipalities are there in the state, which are responsible for providing services in the areas of infrastructure supervised by the Ministry of Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources (MRMEWR). Significant freedom and self-dependence is not provided to any level of local governance. Community services such as parks construction, waste water supervision and pest control are considered as the duties of central government (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 170). There are no local or municipal elections. Development of Legal System a. Development of Law for Associations The Basic Law gives assurance of the autonomy of organizations and associations. Associations must have lawful purposes. All the associations present in the Sultanate must be registered with the government, and they should get the approval and permission of Ministry of Social Development. Employees do not keep the privilege to establish amalgamation bodies (Herb, 1999, p. 57). They can only opt for a committee which will represent them before the government bodies and will also deliver their demands and needs.   b. Development of Media Laws The 1984 Press and Publishing Law facilitate the government to expurgate publications which are politically, ethnically, or sexually odious (Herb, 1999, p. 57). The Ministry of Information is responsible for controlling of local radio and television telecasts. Royal decree in 2004 introduced a new law to control establishment of private radio and television stations. Before 2004, private radio and television services were not allowed to operate. c. Development of Personal Status Law Gender prejudice is not allowed by the Basic law. Women should seek allowance of father, husband or any male member of the family to take a trip abroad (Herb, 1999, p. 58). In terms of inheritance, women are allowed to have half right as compared to male members of the family. The nationality can only be transferred to those children whose mothers marry in the community. A new law was introduced in April 2005. It stated that citizens of Sultanate of Oman can marry the citizens of collaborated Gulf Cooperation Council countries without the governmental allowance.  d. Development of Labour Law The Labour Law was firstly developed in 1973(Herb, 1999, p. 62). It has gone through a number of amendments since then. There are a number of posts that are allocated for nationals of Oman. The foreign nationals are not allowed to apply for them such as technical assistants, guards, light vehicle drivers and agricultural workforce. The government keeps the responsibility of allocating wages course of action for the private divisions. The prohibition on strikes was eliminated in April 2003. Development of Judiciary The legal system in the Sultanate of Oman is influenced by the Sharia conventions of the Ibadi school of Islam (Herb, 1999, p. 75).  The government has developed certain laws and regulations for the judiciary and also has made effort to make judiciary equivalent to the Basic Law.   The judiciary in the Sultanate of Oman is an autonomous body which works according to its own rules and regulations set by Basic Law. The executive division has a major control over the judiciary. All the judges and court officials are appointed by the Sultan. The Supreme Judicial Council supervises the judiciary; devises legal policies and principles and makes certain the autonomy of the magistrates.  It is under the supervision of Sultan. Development of Courts There were a number of different kinds of courts established after 1970 which were held responsible for keeping in control different issues (Herb, 1999, p. 86). The courts working in the Sultanate of Oman are:  Courts of First Instance: It is related to civil, criminal and commercial cases.  Courts of Appeal: It is related to the appeals from courts of First Instance  Supreme Court: It regulates legal laws, reassesses verdicts of subordinate courts, and supervises the appropriate claims and understanding of the law.   Shari’a Courts: They have authority over issues of private position and family commandments.    State Security Court: It deals with the cases that are related to national defence. The trails held for taking decisions are not public.  Administrative Court: The cases related to government entities are considered in this court. The councils, ministries and legal systems developed by the government of Sultanate of Oman helped the Omani people to gain a modernized status. Although these systems are not perfectly effective as there are a number of problems associated to it. For example, the Sultan is considered to be reported for every step and nothing can be done without his approval, so, it is kind of a kingdom in place of a democratic government. For the betterment of people, a democratic system should be introduced which will be according to people’s wishes and needs. No one can deny the government’s role in the transformation of an underdeveloped country but still there are needs for further improvement. Conclusion From the start of the era of Qaboose bin Said, there were tremendous achievements in terms of developments and improvements in the Sultanate of Oman. Before 1970, the Sultanate was not at all praiseworthy as compared to other states of the world. It was devoid of any kind of modernism and modern technologies. As soon as the new state government took the charge of ruling the state, the Sultanate entered a new age and gained a developed status because of the distinguished policies of Qaboose bin Said. The Sultanate of Oman has gone through a number of developments in the fields of administration and politics which was only possible because of the strategies employed by the Sultan. Before 1970, the Sultanate of Oman was considered an isolated and secluded state which was far away from all kinds of developments and advancements. The country is rich in oil resources but the government before 1970, was not aware of the proper use of its resources for the betterment and progress of the state. There were a number of transactions made by the government of Omanfor the improvement and well being of state. His introduction of consultative committees and development programs bring assurance for growth and improvement. Qaboose’s way of administrative and political control is praiseworthy and exemplary for developing nations. The future of Sultanate of Oman is very bright as the state of Oman is aware how can they improve their status manifold with the passage of time. The state should increase the ratio of education in their state and should educate in the fields of technical learning because the country is rich in natural resources that can be drawn out with the help of new technologies. Moreover, the revenue of the country can be extensively increased due to employment of technical skills. References Herb, Michael 1999, All in the Family: Absolutism, Revolution, and Democracy in the Middle Eastern Monarchies, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 48-86 Al-Haj, Abdullah Juma 1996, "The Politics of Participation in the Gulf Cooperation Council States: The Omani Consultative Council," Middle East Journal, Vol. 50, No. 3, Autumn, pp. 567. Miller, Judith 1997, "Creating Modern Oman: An Interview with Sultan Qabus," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76, No. 3, May/June, pp. 17. Peterson, J.E. 2004, "Oman: Three and a Half Decades of Change and Development," Middle East Policy, Vol. 11, No. 2, Summer, pp. 135. Huntington, Samuel P. 1968, Political Order in Changing Societies, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 57-92 ‘International Institute for Strategic Studies’ 2003, The Military Balance, 2003-2004, London: Oxford University Press/IISS, pp. 118-119. ‘The Oman Update’ 2007, Official Gazette 853, Muscat: Official Gazette, 10-45 Wilkinson, John C. 1987, The Imamate Tradition of Oman, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 169-176. O’Reilly, Marc J. 1998, "Omanibalancing: Oman Confronts an Uncertain Future," Middle East Journal, Vol. 52, No. 1, Winter, pp. 82. Allen, Calvin H. Jr. 1986, Oman: Ancient Sultanate and Modern State, London: Croom Helm, pp. 92-110. Plagiarism Report: The Political and Administrative Developments in the Sultanate of Oman The Political and Administrative Developments in the Sultanate of Oman Since 1970 Name: Roll No: Class: Subject: Teacher: Date: 18 th February 2008 University The Political and Administrative Developments in the Sultanate of Oman since 1970 Table of Contents Introduction The Sultanate of Oman, a gulf country of 2,017,591 people of which 1,480,531 are Omanis , passed through certain phases of development and advancement to reach its present state of modernization and transformation. The phases of development and progress include the political and administrative developments as these aspects have foremost importance in gaining an overall modernized status. A country , which is developed politically and administratively , has fair chances to move forward to be a part of the progress race. Oman started gaining an advanced status with the beginning of the change of the change of government on July 23 rd , 1970. The first strategy adopted by the state of Sultanate of Oman in 1971 was to develop long lasting political ties with Arab and other countries which were already developed and advanced in terms of modernism and latest technologies (Allen, 1986, 92). Sultan Qaboose bin Said had a good reputation among Arab countries and was duly received with greetings and good wishes. Sultan Qaboose was an optimist and improved the governmental and ministerial structures through out the Sultanate of Oman. His government also took suitable measures for the formation and implementation of economics, internal protection, national security and oil issues. Internationally Qaboose bin Said is considered to play a crucial role in the development of Sultanate of Oman. From 1970, the Sultanate of Oman has experienced financial, administrative, communal and political improvement. Due to all these developments, Sultanate of Oman can be called a much better state as compared to its previous status before 1970. The Sultanate of Oman gained its present status because of the struggles of Qaboose and his outstanding polices that he adopted for the welfare and establishment of Sultanate of Oman. In political developments, Majlis Ash'Shura (Consultative Assembly) was developed that consists of five more committees that work under it. They are: the Legal Committee, the Economic Committee, the Committee for Health and Social Affairs, the Committee for Education and Culture and the Committee of Services and Development of the Local Communities. Majlis al-Ishtishari (State Consultative Council) was also created by the government in 1982 to help in important decisions that the government should take for the prosperity and advancement of nation (Allen, 1986, 96). Majlis al-Dawla (The Council of State) was also developed for the advisory purposes and for a source of advisory communication between government and citizens of the state. The Sultanate of Oman also developed in terms of personal liberties, legislation regulating the exercise of rights, Media laws, electoral laws, personal status laws, labour laws and laws on associations. In administrative developments, there are a number of improvements and enhancements in the fields of education, health, water resources, housing, telecommunications, legislative branch, judiciary and courts. The Sultanate of Oman has been advancing in the fields of administration and politics from the start of the era of Qaboose bin Said in 1970. Before 1970, the Sultanate was considered mediocre and below the line of modernization. But, after 1970, there was a drastic change in the status of the state and it started developing because of the workable policies of the new government of Qaboose bin Said in 1970 who took over the charge of the state. The coming chapters contain a detailed description regarding the political and administrative developments in the Sultanate of Oman since 1970. Status in Oman before 1970 Status in Sultanate of Oman before 1970 was not of a developed nation. Oman was considered one of those countries which were fully unprivileged and dispossessed before 1970 because it was not making appropriate use of its natural resources. Oman was socially, economically, politically and administratively weak country but after the leadership transformation in 1970, it started gaining international status in terms of success and improvement. Qaboose bin Said with the support of his accomplished and righteous policies and appropriate steps changed the whole stature of Sultanate of Oman (Allen, 1986, 101). He put the country on the track of modernism and advancement. The government working under Qaboose bin Said made Sultanate of Oman a model for the other nations of the world which are aspiring to develop and improve. Said ibn Taimur ruled Oman between 1932-1970. During his rule, he increased debt on the Sultanate of Oman (Allen, 1986, 101). For the creation of an autonomous state, the oil revenues created in the state needed to be explored but the tribes that were resided there were not supportive for such kinds of exploration. In 1954, exploration teams were sent to the tribal areas for the exploration purposes but they met with a strong resistance because the tribes considered this act of government as a contravention of the treaty of 1920 named as As Sib. A new movement known as Oman's liberation movement was there which was backed by Saudi Arabia and was pioneered by the new imam's brother (Huntington, 1968, p. 88). This movement was ended by the British intervention in the area. The Sultan was more concerned to his personal freedom. He enforced laws that were unnecessarily strict and obsolete , he allowe d communal capital punishments and he backed slavery. Because of his interest in his own concerns and his isolation left the Sultanate of Oman in an underdeveloped country. In 1960s, an insurgency was there in Dhufar in which Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO) who got help from Marxist South Yemen took over the charge of the insurgency which was pioneered by the jibalis who rebelled against Sultan's restrictive policies. This rebellious movement made Said ibn Taimur deprived of his rule because his son, Qaboose bin Said was with a better solution to control this rebellion while the Sultan was gain going to use a cruel solution with the help of Armed forces. Sultanate of Oman is rich in oil resources but before 1970, the Omani nationals were unable to realize the full usefulness and credibility of their natural treasure. The Sultanate of Oman was also considered an isolated state b y other countries of the world d ue to its lack of political and administrative development s. Th e Sultanate of Oman manufactured other products also along with petroleum products such as n on-metallic mineral commodities and eatable products before 1970. People of the state were also involved in the exercising of conventional handicrafts such as weaving, ceramics building , boat construction and gold and silver works (Huntington, 1968, p. 57). It was planned in 1970 that the government should take suitable measures for the improvement and integration of country's plants outside Muscat and Salalah. Five year plans for the welfare and improvement of state were also thought of after 1970 but before 1970, people of Sultanate of Oman were living a life free of any kind of modernism because the rulers were not concerned with the improvements, they were only interested in their own powers and economic benefits. Moreover, there was lack of knowledge and education among the masses due to which people were unable to make suitable policies for the improvements and developments. The Sultanate of Oman also employed substandard ways of fishing and farming as a means of existence. The population at that time was more or less one million. The Sultanate comprised only three primary schools which were for educating the masses. this number shows the importance given to education at that time (Huntington, 1968, p. 68). The country had only one hospital which is evident of its backwardness due to which the country was deprived of proper medical facilities. As far as roads are concerned, only a few kilometres of land roads were there due to which there was a lot of trouble in terms of transportation. Because of trading of raw oil, the Sultanate of Oman got a good revenue and there was hope of developments but the rulers of that time were not capable to bring about the transformation so it was only possible after 1970, when Qaboose came to power, that the state start developing in terms of economical, political, administrative and social gains. It was only possible due to selling of oil with the appropriate strategies set by the government of Qaboose bin Said. In 1950's the first area containing oil resources was discovered which was located in south and was called Marmul (Huntington, 1968, p. 92). This area was discarded due to its low quality of crude oil but after the establishment of Qaboose's government, the crude oil gained from this reservoir was utilized properly. Establishment of the Modernization (Sultan Qaboose Era) With the start of Qaboose's rule in the Sultanate of Oman, the state government prioritized economic and political i ssues by planning about them. Qaboose bin Said also delivered a number of speeches regarding these issues. He turned the name of Oman from Oman to Sultanate of Oman. He established a number of ministries such as Interior, Justice, Health, Education, Labour and Economy ministries. He also selected a new flag for the representation of nation. The government unified Muscat, Oman and Dhofar (Allen, 1986, 102). Qaboose bin Said after coming into power allowed all exiled leaders and dignitaries to return back to the Sultanate. In terms of political developments, he also highlighted the significance of a separate Foreign Policy for the state and of setting up good and strong ties with all the other Arab States. Qaboose bin Said described various areas of the state which were urgently in need of infrastructure and financial improvement in his speeches in the years 1971 and 1972 on the occasions of National Day. There were a number of unessential rules for travelling, trading and utilization of farming and agricultural technology. The government gave utmost importance to the construction of roads, innovatory and developed ideas for agricultural purposes, the improvement of health and educational services for the common citizen and development of telecommunications technology all over the Sultanate of Oman (International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003, p. 118). Water supply was also significant for the state so, it was also given utmost importance because it also was a major part of development. The government also conducted a survey regarding the presence of resources in the state. Because of oil resources and its trade, the government was successful in implementing all the policies quickly regarding modernization. In 1976, there was a five year plan regarding the improvement of infrastructure and economy of the Sultanate. The government also thought about the other found resources except oil because the country's revenue can not be properly managed with only one resource so he gave importance to withdrawal of resources from underground, industrialization, farming and fisheries (O'Reilly, 1998, p. 82). The government wanted to invest in more than one fields to promote the nation manifold. The new government realized the need for education for the development of Sultanate of Oman, that's the reason of establishing a number of educational institutions all over the Sultanate for the betterment of the residents (Miller, 1997, p. 17). The government of Oman established the National Local Community Development Program (NLCDP) in 1976. Educational improvement was one of the top most priorities of this development program. Libraries for adults and Quranic studies schools were developed by the NLCDP with the collaboration of the Ministry of Justice and Awqat & Islamic Affairs. The Teaching Training Institute (TTI) was set up for the guidance of Omani teachers and instructors in 1977. Sultan Qaboose University was launched in 1986 (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 169). The Ministry of higher education was developed in 1994 by education initiative by the royal decree that was updated. The Omani government arranged for the coming back of educated Omani nationals that were residents in the foreign countries. This step also gave a boost to modernization of Sultanate of Oman. Educational reforms helped Oman to proceed towards development and progress. The government along with the nationals of the Sultanate of Oman identified the need of a particular Omani national identity for the purpose of being identified as a nation. A national identity is also required for the promotion of a nation. The first two decades of the rule of Qaboose bin Said are important for the discovery of a national identity that was required for the development of state. The government of Sultanate of Oman was victorious in the identification of a separate identity for the state building because of his Sultanate's rich resources, improvement of infrastructure and educational progress (International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003, p. 118). After this functioning, the government introduced the Majlis Ash'Shura which was a consulting assembly in which people were allowed to give opinions for certain issues of the state. Qaboose bin Said after taking over the ruling position of Sultanate of Oman rejected the policies adopted by his father and set the Sultanate on the track of development and progress. According to his opinion, no gain could be achieved by isolating a state. proper foreign affairs must be there for the advancement of a country. He solved the Dhufar rebellion problem quite outstandingly. Qaboose bin Said got training at Royal Military Academy which is located in Britain (International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003, p. 119). He took charge of progress of his nation. Qaboose arranged for British personnel and technological apparatus to eradicate the Dhufar rebellion. The Sultanate's first cabinet was allocated in late 1970s (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 169). This cabinet was established for proceeding forward in terms of structuring the modernized government body. Qaboose bin Said held himself responsible for the services of prime minister and defence and foreign affairs minister. The government of Qaboose bin Said also took suitable steps for the promotion of oil resources and used policies for the increase of revenue that should be gained with the help of oil that was frequently present in natural form in the Sultanate of Oman. The Sultanate of Oman attached itself with the Arab League and the United Nations in 1971. It was also involved in the establishment of Gulf Cooperation Council in 1981 (Allen, 1986, 110). The Gulf Cooperation Council was developed for the promotion of collaboration in the fields of finance, politics and national defence. The Sultanate of Oman has good and strong ties with the United States and United Kingdom since the era of the rule of Qaboose bin Said. Investigation of Development in the Political Aspects After 1970, a number of developments were made to modernize the Omani society, out of which the councils played an important role as people were asked in the communicative processes between government and public. All of these developments were made for the welfare and betterment of Omani nationals. The organized institutions were successful in most of the aspects. Development of the Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla) Majlis al-Dawla was developed in 1997 and is a consultative entity. It ensures a communicative process between Government and citizens. The Council has 59 associates including 9 women (Herb, 1999, p. 67). All of these associates are employed by the Sultan. All the associates are appointed for three years. It is responsible for suggesting proposals for the support of investment and for the betterment of political and administrative functions. All the legal, social and economic issues come under the supervision of this consulting entity. Development of the Consultative Council (Majlis ash-Shura) Majlis ash-Shura was developed in 1991 and it has the responsibilities of recommending appropriate legislation. Like Majlis al-Dawla, it is also a consultative entity. This Council is answerable to the Sultan and Council of Ministers (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 176). The council has 83 associates who are appointed for four years. Its positions are divided in 61 provinces of the state. There are five reputable committees attached to the Majlis. The committees are: 1. The Legal Committee 2. The Economic Committee 3. The Committee for Health and Social Affairs 4. The Committee for Education and Culture 5. The Committee of Services and Development of the Local Communities From the above listing, it is evident that the duties of council are manifold. They give consultation in the fields of legislation, economics, health, social affairs, education, culture and services and development of residential communities (Herb, 1999, p. 69). Qaboose bin Said in one of his speeches said about Majlis ash-Shura, ``This experiment of choosing the membership of the Majlis ash-Shura representing the wilayats has provided us with a new dimension from which we can benefit in the future life of the Majlis, in particular, the assessment of the proportion of members necessary for striking the required nationwide representational balance.''(Miller, 1997, p. 17) Development of the State Consultative Council (Majlis al-Ishtishari) Majlis al-Ishtishari came into being in 1981. It was established when the first phase of financial expansion was over and a nationwide rail and road network was created. Qaboose bin Said started the democratic establishment of institutions with the inauguration of Majlis al-Ishtishari. This council comprised 45 associates, out of which 17 were employed from the central government, 11 were appointed from the private subdivision and 17 from the wilayats of Majlis ash-Shura. The appointed people working under this council were highly expert as they kept the eligibility to work the best for their particular areas. The number of associates increased by adding 10 more to 45 associates in 1983 (Herb, 1999, p. 73). The major role this council was to provide advice to the government for the works of development and improvement. Development of Electoral Law Restrictive policies for voting have been removed since 2003. Every citizen whose age is 21 can cast his/her vote.A From 1997, women are allowed to stand for the elections of consultative council. Elections are held by majority vote. Armed forces and defence personnel are not allowed to cast their votes. Development of Personal liberties Individual liberty is made certain by the Basic Law and regulated by laws.A All citizens are considered equal before the law. Law is not concerned to the gender, origin, colour, language, religious conviction, sect, dwelling or communal standing.A According to the law of Sultanate of Oman, illogical taking into custody and imprisonment are proscribed (Herb, 1999, p. 51). Pragmatically, the law enforcement officials are not necessarily to get hold of an arrest warrant in advance.A A The Basic Law assures liberty of legislative body. For all community assemblage, government authorization is needed and the government also keeps the power to put a stop to prearranged communal gatherings devoid of any application procedure. A Autonomy of views and feelings regarding any social issue within the restrictions of the law is also admitted by the Basic Law (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 173). Disapproval of Sultan and his policies is not allowed by individuals as well as Media. People are fully allowed to exercise their religious liberty. A Bodily and mental torment is not allowed. People have all t he constitutional rights to seek guidance , appeal, and legislation. A With the passage of time, human rights and laws related to human rights have developed predictably. Development of Basic Law The basic law developed to be implemented after 1970 and was followed accordingly. The latest laws are given in official gazette. (The Oman Update, 2007, 10) “The Sultanate of Oman is an independent, Arab, Islamic, fully sovereign state with Muscat as its capital. The religion of the State is Islam and the Islamic Shariah is the basis of legislation. Arabic is the official language of the State. The law shall determine the State's Flag, its Emblem, its decorations and medals and its National Anthem. The system of government is a hereditary Sultanate in which succession passes to a male descendant of Sayyid Turki bin Said bin Sultan. It is a condition that the male who is chosen to rule should be an adult Muslim of sound mind and a legitimate son of Omani Muslim parents. Within three days of the position of Sultan becoming vacant, the Ruling Family Council shall determine upon who will succeed to the Throne. If the Ruling Family Council does not agree upon a successor, the Defence Council shall confirm the appointment of the person designated by the Sultan in his letter to the Family Council.” Before exercising his powers the Sultan shall swear the following oath at a joint session of the Oman and Defence Councils: ``I swear by Almighty God to respect the Basic Law of the State and the Laws, to fully protect the interests and freedoms of the citizens, and to preserve the independence of the country and its territorial integrity.'' The Government shall continue to conduct its business as usual until the Sultan is chosen and begins to exercise his powers. Rule in the Sultanate shall be based on justice, Shura Consultation and equality. Citizens shall have the right to take part in public affairs - in accordance with this Basic Law and the conditions and circumstances defined in the Law.” Development of Legislation regulating the exercise of rights Political parties are against the law in the Sultanate of Oman. For community's involvement, several Majlis are established for the proper consultation of matters. Development of Women Rights in Oman The Sultanate of Oman, has specified Omani women the rights to vote in Majlis A' Shura and to also go in front in certain legislative positions of which was unheard of in the past. There has also been a growth in Omani society as women are taking presidential positions in the private sector as business women. The Sultanate of Oman consent ed to the UN Women's Convention in February 2002 and the establishment later declare d that a commission had been set to encourage its execution (International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003, p. 119). However, women continued to be subject to discrimination both in national law and in practice, notably in terms of personal status, employment and participation in public life. Development of Economic Freedom The national economy is based upon justice and the policies regarding free economy. It can only be obtained by a good and prosperous link between the governmental, communal and private functions. For all kinds of economic activities that are for the well-being of population and the state and those who follow all the implemented laws are given full freedom. The government of Sultanate of Oman promotes saving schemes and supervises for the principles regarding credits. The natural resources present in the Sultanate are under the ownership of government of the state or we can say that they belong to the state (Herb, 1999, p. 57). The state itself is accountable for their protection and appropriate uses for the betterment and increase of national finance. The state also holds itself responsible for the protection of public properties. The nationals of the state are also forced to preserve it. Like public possessions, the private possessions are also secured. No one is allowed to damage them. They can be seized by the government for the communal benefits but by following the rules set for them (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 173). The person whose property is seized can get a small compensation for the property that is a negative aspect. For inheritance, the rules set by the Shariah of Islam are followed. Women are given half of the share in inheritance as compared to men. For applying taxes and other public dues, justice is done and they are taken for the betterment and improvement of national economy. A Investigation of Development in the Administrative Aspects There were no ministries and councils before 1970. it was only possible after the arrival of new government in 1970 that the governmental system of Sultanate of Oman started converting into a modernized one where the ministries, councils and law systems were established for the betterment of population as well as for international acceptable status. Council of Ministers A The sultan of the Sultanate of Oman is responsible for employing the ministers for the councils. The council of ministers sets objectives and policies for the advancement and improvement of various aspects of the state such as commercial, social, political and administrative. The council of ministers is also responsible for suggesting new laws for the development of state. The council also talks over the issues of improvement plans and gives proposals for the other ministries for the implementation of these plans. The council keeps an eye on the execution of laws, rules and regulations and also monitors the other agreements, treaties and the judgements made by the courts of the state. Development of Local GovernmentA Sultanate of Oman is separated into 59 provinces which are called wilayats. These provinces are controlled by Walis who are the executives of the provinces and perform the duties assigned by the government. Fifteen Walis are appointed for the areas of Muscat, Dhofar and Musandam who are answerable to the appointed Governors. The Governors of Muscat and Dhufar are also appointed as Ministers of the state (Herb, 1999, p. 48). Other parts of the state are also controlled by forty four Walis who report to the Ministry of the Interior. Forty five municipalities are there in the state, which are responsible for providing services in the areas of infrastructure supervised by the Ministry of Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources (MRMEWR). Significant freedom and self-dependence is not provided to any level of local governance. Community services such as parks construction, waste water supervision and pest control are considered as the duties of central government (Wilkinson, 1987, p. 170). There are no local or municipal elections. Development of Legal System a. Development of Law for Associations The Basic Law gives assurance of the autonomy of organizations and associations. Associations must have lawful purposes. All the associations present in the Sultanate must be registered with the government, and they should get the approval and permission of Ministry of Social Development.A Employees do not keep the privilege to establish amalgamation bodies (Herb, 1999, p. 57). They can only opt for a committee which will represent them before the government bodies and will also deliver their demands and needs.A A b. Development of Media Laws The 1984 Press and Publishing Law facilitate the government to expurgate publications which are politically, ethnically, or sexually odious (Herb, 1999, p. 57). The Ministry of Information is responsible for controlling of local radio and television telecasts. Royal decree in 2004 introduced a new law to control establishment of private radio and television stations. Before 2004, private radio and television services were not allowed to operate. c. Development of Personal Status Law Gender prejudice is not allowed by the Basic law. Women should seek allowance of father, husband or any male member of the family to take a trip abroad (Herb, 1999, p. 58). In terms of inheritance, women are allowed to have half right as compared to male members of the family. The nationality can only be transferred to those children whose mothers marry in the community.A A new law was introduced in April 2005. It stated that citizens of Sultanate of Oman can marry the citizens of collaborated Gulf Cooperation Council countries without the governmental allowance.A d. Development of Labour Law The Labour Law was firstly developed in 1973 (Herb, 1999, p. 62). It has gone through a number of amendments since then.A There are a number of posts that are allocated for nationals of Oman. The foreign nationals are not allowed to apply for them such as technical assistants, guards, light vehicle drivers and agricultural workforce. The government keeps the responsibility of allocating wages course of action for the private divisions. The prohibition on strikes was eliminated in April 2003. Development of A Judiciary The legal system in the Sultanate of Oman is influenced by the Sharia conventions of the Ibadi school of Islam (Herb, 1999, p. 75).A The government has developed certain laws and regulations for the judiciary and also has made effort to make judiciary equivalent to the Basic Law.A A The judiciary in the Sultanate of Oman is an autonomous body which works according to its own rules and regulations set by Basic Law. The executive division has a major control over the judiciary. All the judges and court officials are appointed by the Sultan. The Supreme Judicial Council supervises the judiciary. devises legal policies and principles and makes certain the autonomy of the magistrates.A It is under the supervision of Sultan. Development of Courts There were a number of different kinds of courts established after 1970 which were held responsible for keeping in control different issues (Herb, 1999, p. 86). The courts working in the Sultanate of Oman are:A Courts of First Instance: It is related to civil, criminal and commercial cases.A Courts of Appeal: It is related to the appeals from courts of First InstanceA Supreme Court: It regulates legal laws, reassesses verdicts of subordinate courts, and supervises the appropriate claims and understanding of the law.A A Shari'a Courts : They have authority over issues of private position and family commandments.A A A State Security Court: It deals with the cases that are related to national defence. The trails held for taking decisions are not public.A Administrative Court : The cases related to government entities are considered in this court. The councils, ministries and legal systems developed by the government of Sultanate of Oman helped the Omani people to gain a modernized status. Although these systems are not perfectly effective as there are a number of problems associated to it. For example, the Sultan is considered to be reported for every step and nothing can be done without his approval, so, it is kind of a kingdom in place of a democratic government. For the betterment of people, a democratic system should be introduced which will be according to people's wishes and needs. No one can deny the government's role in the transformation of an underdeveloped country but still there are needs for further improvement. Conclusion From the start of the era of Qaboose bin Said, there were tremendous achievements in terms of developments and improvements in the Sultanate of Oman. Before 1970, the Sultanate was not at all praiseworthy as compared to other states of the world. It was devoid of any kind of modernism and modern technologies. As soon as the new state government took the charge of ruling the state, the Sultanate entered a new age and gained a developed status because of the distinguished policies of Qaboose bin Said. The Sultanate of Oman has gone through a number of developments in the fields of administration and politics which was only possible because of the strategies employed by the Sultan. Before 1970, the Sultanate of Oman was considered an isolated and secluded state which was far away from all kinds of developments and advancements. The country is rich in oil resources but the government before 1970, was not aware of the proper use of its resources for the betterment and progress of the state. There were a number of transactions made by the government of Omanfor the improvement and well being of state. His introduction of consultative committees and development programs bring assurance for growth and improvement. Qaboose's way of administrative and political control is praiseworthy and exemplary for developing nations. The future of Sultanate of Oman is very bright as the state of Oman is aware how can they improve their status manifold with the passage of time. The state should increase the ratio of education in their state and should educate in the fields of technical learning because the country is rich in natural resources that can be drawn out with the help of new technologies. Moreover, the revenue of the country can be extensively increased due to employment of technical skills. References Herb, Michael 1999, All in the Family: Absolutism, Revolution, and Democracy in the Middle Eastern Monarchies, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 48-86 Al-Haj, Abdullah Juma 1996, "The Politics of Participation in the Gulf Cooperation Council States: The Omani Consultative Council," Middle East Journal, Vol. 50, No. 3, Autumn, pp. 567. Miller, Judith 1997, "Creating Modern Oman: An Interview with Sultan Qabus," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76, No. 3, May/June, pp. 17. Peterson, J.E. 2004, "Oman: Three and a Half Decades of Change and Development," Middle East Policy, Vol. 11, No. 2, Summer, pp. 135. Huntington, Samuel P. 1968 , Political Order in Changing Societies , New Haven: Yale University Press, p p. 57-92 `International Institute for Strategic Studies' 2003, The Military Balance, 2003-2004, London: Oxford University Press/IISS, pp. 118-119. `The Oman Update' 2007, Official Gazette 853, Muscat: Official Gazette, 10-45 Wilkinson, John C. 1987, The Imamate Tradition of Oman, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 169-176. O'Reilly, Marc J. 1998, "Omanibalancing: Oman Confronts an Uncertain Future," Middle East Journal, Vol. 52, No. 1, Winter, pp. 82. Allen, Calvin H. Jr. 1986, Oman: Ancient Sultanate and Modern State, London: Croom Helm, pp. 92-110. 15 27 References Read More