Meaning of Modernity According to Modern Political Theorists - Term Paper Example

Meaning of Modernity According to Modern Political Theorists Introduction Modernity has been defined differently by different theorists and commentators. The definition of modernity as it applies in the social, political, and philosophical arenas has been subject to change over time. While in sociology, modernity is often associated with industrial revolution (Eyerman and Jamison 1991, p. 74), politically, it has a lot to do with the shift from feudalism to nation-state. Further, modernity in philosophical terms is associated with the loss of certainty and the impossibility of establishing certainty ultimately. In lay terms, modernity is associated with modernism and the modern era. In consideration of the above definitions, it may be well taken that modernity refers to a historical period that is post medieval and post traditional – one that is marked by the shift from feudalism toward nation-state, industrialization, rationalization, capitalism, and secularization (Carp 1979, p. 64). To-date, the definition of modernity is an issue of massive controversy and is subject to a lot of debate. This being the case, this paper will focus on how modern political philosophers have defined modernity. History and Characteristic of Modernity The history of modernity is as controversial as its definition. While some argue that modernity started in the 18th century or during the age of Enlightenment, others note that the beginning of modernity run as far back as the 1500s, during the age of Western imperialism (Merton 1949, p. 34). Worth noting at this point is the fact that while modernity seemingly refers specifically to the social relations that are associated with the rise of capitalism, the Enlightenment has a lot to do with a Western philosophy movement (Carp 1979, p. 103). Yet again, others claim that modernity began during or around the 1400s, with the invention of the printing press. Generally, modernity has been divided into three main phases based on historical period namely; early, classical and late modernity. There are many characteristics that have been assigned to the establishment of the modern era. The main characteristics in this respect include the rise of the nation state, industrialization, urbanization, rise of capitalism and mercantilism, and mass literacy (dbu.edu n.d,par. 1). Other characteristics include emergence of countries founded on socialist ideals, growth of mass media, developments in science and technology, increase in the appreciation of representative democracy, and the discovery and colonization of lands beyond the Western world (dbu.edu n.d,par. 2). In addition to the characteristics aforementioned, other facets of modernity include emancipation, establishment of modern psychology, early existentialism and romanticism, and evolutionary thinking in different disciplines (dbu.edu n.d,par. 3). Karl Marx and Engels Views on Modernity Karl Marx’s notion of modernity was a result of the play of three major developments that occurred in his lifetime. The three events included the French revolutions (1789 and 1848), the collapse of the intellectual credibility of the church, and the agrarian and industrial revolutions (Dorobantu 2008, par. 1). Karl thought about a new era that resulted from the three events leading to the future. At the time of his demise, a large majority of European states were under the rule of monarchs and most of the population of Europe attended church. In Marx’s view, as presented by the Communist Manifesto of which he was an author, capitalism was a means toward the realisation of ultimate modernity – stateless communism (Dorobantu 2008, par. 3). In the Manifesto, Marx gives a lot of tribute to the bourgeoisie who revolutionised the world. The bourgeoisie changed the face of the world, established urban centres, centralised political power, and moved the masses from their rural settings to work in industries, and expended their markets continuously as noted by Dorobantu (2008, par. 4). Marx distinguishes people and their interests through class as presented in his notion of landlords, capitalists, and wage labourers - characteristic of the capitalist society. As the bourgeoisie develop in the capitalist society, so does a proletariat lot. The proletariat in this case consists of persons who own no property and have to work to work for the capitalists to earn a living. The capitalist society was immediately preceded by an aristocratic society and much earlier preceded by a feudal economy according to Marx Dorobantu (2008, par. 6). Karl Marx and Engels saw the modern era as one that pointed to novel sense of historical possibility as noted by Eyerman (1981). They perceived not the modern era as only one that was characterized by the proliferation of forms of social existence that were degrading as brought about by the industrialization of urban centres. The two philosophers noted that modernity led to the establishment of a novel appreciation of historical change. Better stated, it led to the development of historical consciousness which involved a vision to absolutely undo and, in fact, negate the world order in existence. Essentially, Marx and Engels hold that what defines the modern era is the new period of history that it establishes. Essentially, Marx notes that a modern person is one who has the conviction or ethos to see beyond the superficial nature of things, revolutions in history included. Immanuel Kant’s Views on Modernity Immanuel Kant was a prominent German philosopher who lived in the 18th century and early 19th century (Broad, 1978). Kant contributed immensely to modern philosophy and greatly influenced many thinkers of his time. His thoughts occupy the minds of today’s philosophers, historians, and even scientists. According to Kant, modernity encompassed an era in which the state was founded on law and peace everlasting. In other words, according to Kant, modern states are to be legally constituted and governed. Modernity in Kant’s view is characterised by the respect for human rights by the state. A modern state in his view thus is one that assures people of their fundamental rights and freedoms, and enhances them (Broad, 1978). Kant also viewed direct democracy as being not ideal for the government of a modern state. He noted that when the majority’s will is upheld, the will of the minority is ignored and their rights trampled upon. He further noted that equality for all individuals should characterised modern society. Kant believed that the problems that face modernity could be alleviated by “Ausgang” as noted by Broad (1978). He believed that the freedom that modernity presented did not assure the fulfilment and autonomy that it initially promised but instead led to the disappearance of whatever was considered heroic. While modernity may have grown under the “Aude Sapere” banner. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Modernity Friedrich Hegel was a philosopher and a major force behind German idealism. He believed in a system of absolute idealism that involved the integration of different things for the realisation of development (Scruton 1990, p. 84). Hegel is one of the modern political theorists that have commented about modernity. His philosophy holds it that the universal (the ideal) can be actualised and externalized only through an individual (Inwood 1983, p. 54). The universal is inherently unified in form and content and blissfully responds to self sufficiency. The Ideal stands in great contrast to the chaotic world and demands a reformation. In Hegel’s view, the problems that face modernity come about in the event that the universal has absolutely and successfully externalised itself through law. In the modern era, according to Hegel, people do not live in a state of nature in which fear and lawlessness reign supreme (Inwood 1983, p. 61). The institution of a legal framework that gives people the freedom of expression and freedom to pursue personal interests as long as they are aligned to public interests characterise a modern society in Hegel’s view (Gillian, 1981, p. 46). The individual’s role in a modern society is to be subject to the modern state so that when he/she works against the state and proves to be a danger to it, they should be punished for the sake of correction. In Hegels’ view the continual specialization and diversification of the modern society has seen humans’ influential sphere massively reduce from the level it was during the pre-modern era (Inwood 1983, p. 83). On its part the state has so tremendously grown so that it can not anymore be considered a single person’s action. As a result of these developments, individuals no longer appreciate the reasons for and effects of their actions and wish not to be held accountable for such actions and would rather share responsibility. Conclusion Different modern political theorists hold different views with respect to the beginning, effects and characteristics of modernity. Many of the political theorists including Karl Marx and Engels note that one of the characteristics of modernity is capitalism which has developed through a process. In their view, modernity is characterised by historical consciousness. Marx and Engels highlight many negative things that have come about as a result of modernity. Immanuel Kant on his part notes that the development of the nation state that is constitutionally governed characterises the modern era. Modernity in his view is characterised further by everlasting peace and respect for individual and human rights. Hegel’s view of modernity believes that modernity is characterised by freedom of expression and diminishing personal influence and power at the expense of the state’s development so that the individual is reduced to a punishable subject by state. References dbu.edu n.d, Definitions and Characteristics of Modernity, viewed 1 April, 2013 http://www3.dbu.edu/mitchell/modernit.htm Eyerman, R. 1981, False consciousness and ideology in Marxist theory, Almqvist and Wiksell and Humanities Press, Stockholm. Broad, C. 1978, Kant: an Introduction. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Inwood, M. 1983, Hegel, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. Gillian R. 1981, Hegel Contra Sociology, Athlone Press, New York. Scruton R., 1990, "Hegel as a conservative thinker" in The Philosopher on Dover Beach, Manchester: Carcanet Press, New York. Carp W., 1979, The working class in welfare capitalism, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. Eyerman R. and Jamison, A. 1991, Social movements: A cognitive approach, Polity Press, Oxford, Merton, R. 1949, Social theory and social structure, Free Press, New York. Dorobantu I. 2008, Karl Marx and Modernity, viewed 1 April, 2013 http://www.inpolitics.ro/irina_b1/Karl-Marx-and-Modernity_22756.aspx Read More