The New Politics of Public Policymaking - Coursework Example

New Politics of Public Policy Making Introduction Public policy is defined as the legal course of action taken by the government, in the form of laws and regulatory measures, concerning a specific subject or matter proclaimed by a governmental entity. The sector responsible for this task embodies the policy in the constitutional law and manages the implementing of legislations, for example the United States federal law. In broader terms, the public policy making is the product of analysis and evaluation of governmental decisions. Public Policy making The public policy making process is a long, complicated which involves evidence from the present era, statistics from the past and the best interest of the people involved, majority as well as the minority. The result of this process is seen in the form of government acts and laws that often indicate some level of skepticism in it (Dionne, pp. 23-49). The policymaking has to go through several steps that include “establishing agenda, formulation, adoption, implementation, evaluation, and termination” (CliffsNotes, n.p.). However, history shows that very few policies have come to the point of termination (CliffsNotes, n.p). Another important factor that affects this process is financial analysis. The government is responsible for needs to set up financial skill set and its existence guarantees recognition by politicians and bureaucrats of the need for generalist skills in policymaking (Levin, Landy, & Shapiro, 35-47). Collecting survey data must also be within the allotted budget because in order to make effective policies, survey data must be accurate. Public policies in 70s and 80s Analysing the situation in 1970s In 1970s, United States underwent a major energy crisis due to the decline in the oil production and consumed more amount of the worlds energy as compared to its population; this had a tremendous impact on the social and economic situation of the country. In addition to that, the post world war conditions in 1960s had dramatically increased the United States population as a result it had the highest mass standard of living in the world history. All these factors combined gave birth to environmentalism, a movement concerned with the living conditions of creatures on earth. The growth of the movement was further advanced by the adverse conditions and extreme protests of the 60’s, which challenged imperialism, racism, and violence. Despite these diminishing conditions government failed to come up with effective policies as the Nixons Watergate scandal was in full swing, making it hard for them to take productive measures. The Women Movement The publication of books like Betty Friedans The feminine mystique and Susan Brownmillers Against our wills spiked a sense of self – recognition in women, inspiring them to establish their own identity and demand equal rights socially as well as in terms of employment. These books discussed the discrimination against women in daily life and probed the issue of low wages against men. The movement also demanded security rights against domestic violence and rape. The result of the movement was in the form of a grand campaign, demanding to pass an Equal Rights Amendment in the constitution but Nixons government had conservative reaction to the campaign so the amendment never came into existence, nevertheless, this movement paved path for the future accomplishments in the 80s and 90s (Davis, p. 76). One sector where this movement created a significant impact was education. In 1972, the United States congress passed the Higher Education Act, as an amendment to the Civil rights Act, a clause of which strictly forbade sexual discriminations in any educational institutions receiving federal funds. Further, in 1974, the Women’s Educational Equity Act reinforced this act. This was an important milestone in gaining recognition for women in 70s. Healthcare Policy Various health care policies came into existence in 70’s, which granted women independence and control over their own bodies, boosting a sense of confidence. The new social regime was introduced which encompassed environmental factors, anti – discrimination laws and health and safety regulations. In the early 70s, National Health Insurance bill was enacted, which was financed by the federal revenues and taxes. Under this bill, birth control pills were approved and the controversial issue of abortion was highlighted and resolved in the form of Family Planning Act (U.S. National Library of Medicines, 2013). In 1973, Health Maintenance Organization Act (HMO) was passed, which gave a high edge to the minority in the country irrespective of their employment conditions. In the late 70s when the government changed, it resulted in changing of various health policies as well. Kennedy revoked a new bill in 1979, which comprised of private health insurance plans credited by income – based premiums on individual basis (U.S. National Library of Medicines, 2013). The Status of Minorities The civil rights movement, which started in 1960s, gave progression to the policies implemented in the 70s, to prevent the discrimination against minorities and grant them equal rights. The controversial issue of busing, generated to accomplish racial balance in Los Angeles, Boston was strongly condemned, and because of several protests and movements, the Supreme Court ruled out the issue as unconstitutional in 1974. Affirmative Action Programs were also initiated, under which equal employment opportunities were granted to the minorities. The idea was that such programs would be equal to reverse discrimination. The Supreme Court also restricted the use of quota system to prevent racial discrimination; however, it still played a significant role in the admission policies of colleges and universities. The result of these policies came in the form Mexican – American and Native – American groups and unions which managed to accomplish significant motives in the long run. These groups encouraged people of their own race to compete for the political office in the Southwest and West. In 1973, various changes were made in the Native – American policy due to their capture of some states, in spite of that fact, Nixon supported the tribal autonomy and as a result Indian – Self Determination Act was enforced in 1974, which granted the Native – American tribes power over programs funded by Federal Aid that helped them. Analysing the situation in 1980s The energy crisis of 1970s resulted in the form of oil glut in the early 80s; which stimulated the economy of United States bringing changes in social and political situation of the country. Not only United State but also the whole world was going through economic liberization with the emergence of new multinational corporations. All these conditions combined resulted in the global recession of the early 80’s that affected majority of the developed nations. Regardless of all this, 80s era witnessed an exponential increase in the growth of the population. Immigration Policies The worsening economic situation of the world prompted the citizens of third world countries to head towards the land of opportunities that in turn forced the government to introduce new and effective immigration policies for the minorities, belonging to other countries and races (Levin, DiSalvo, & Shapiro, pp. 75-90). A major stepping-stone in this process was the implementation of the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) in 1986; which altered the United States immigration law. This law conceded a way to the citizenship of United States for the immigrants who have been living there before 1982 and forbade the hiring of illegal immigrants. However, IRCA created problems for the employers and caused them to discriminate between workers on the bases of nationality hence resulting in the reduction of employment opportunities for the illegal immigrants. Even if the foreigners were hired, they were subjected to low wages as the employers were exposed to the risk of hiring citizens alien to the United States, as the law regarding illegal immigrants was clear. Although American policies welcomed immigrants, however, this created another issue of “presence of millions of undocumented aliens in the United States” (Levin, DiSalvo, & Shapiro, pg. 81). Multicultural Policies In order to support the common political projects, the government encouraged the idea of multicultural policies. This enabled them to support social benefits and provided a backing for the armed forces. These policies aimed at accommodating and acknowledging different cultures, hence promoting the immigrants to adjust in a culture different from theirs. Multicultural policies played a vital role in the academics, as the issue of neglecting the minorities had always posed a question mark. These policies aimed at benefitting the minorities by making them feel welcome in the community. The Equal Status of Women Because of the women movement in 1970’s, not only the educational opportunities radically increased by the beginning of 1980, in addition to that, the prospects of equal employment also brightened. Women were also recruited in the military. Statistics show that the percentage of women in the United States military had significantly rose from 8.5 percent in 1980 to 10.8 percent in 1989 (Becraft, pp. 2). As gender discrimination began to diminish, the world of opportunities opened for women. They were able to establish their separate identity, secure property in their name and lead a life free from male oppression. The efforts of the revolutionary women writers provoked their diminished citizens to stand up for their rights. It was the result of those prior movements that the women in todays world are no more exposed to the threats of a male dominated society. Conclusion Despite the economic and political turmoil in 70s and 80s, United States was able to put forward some effective public policies that molded the existing situation of the country. The nation witnessed severe conflict over the issues of busing and affirmative action, but this time people realised the power of their opinion and stood up for their rights that ultimately forced the government to develop effective policies to resolve these issues. This era had a very profound impact on the education sector and brought significant revolutions. The idea of admissions in institutions devoid of any racial, sexual, or social discrimination is what made United States a powerful nation today. In addition to that, the civil rights movement was extended to include the same quality of education for disabled children as for the normal and policies were introduced to extend the government funding for such institutions. All this combined paved way for the United States as we see it today (Almanac of Policy Issues, pp.6). This perception of civil rights remained visible in latter governments as well; for instance, during the Bush regime, the government “denounced policies that had ‘left behind’ millions of African American and Latino children, emphasizing the language of civil rights and social justice” (Levin, DiSalvo, & Shapiro, pg. 44). Finally, the paper included discussion on some of the significant aspects of public policy making in the contextual setting of the United States of America. The paper identified and analyzed different studies and researches related to the topic that allows an in-depth understanding regarding government’s decisions regarding different elements of US society. However, it is anticipation that future researches in this regard will allow a more comprehensive and updated understanding of the impact that public policies leave on the society. It is an expectation that the paper will be beneficial for students, teachers, and professionals in better understanding of the topic. Works Cited Almanac of Policy Issues. The State of U.S. Education. Almanac of Policy Issues, September 23, 2004. Retrieved on March 20, 2013: http://www.policyalmanac.org/education/archive/doe_state_of_education.shtml Becraft, Carolyn. Women in the Military, 1980-1990. June 1990. Retrieved on March 20, 2013: http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=ObyEmAEACAAJ&dq=Women+in+the+Military,+1980-1990+%2B+carolyn&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VdNOUb6EPYTj4QTJroGgBg&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA CliffsNotes.com. The Policymaking Process, 2013. Retrieved on March 20, 2013: http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-65383,articleId-65551.html Davis, James A., Jennifer Lauby, and Paul B. Sheatsley. Americans View the Military: Public Opinion in 1982. Chicago, IL: National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, April 1983. Retrieved on March 20, 2013: http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=65aYMQEACAAJ&dq=Americans+View+the+Military:+Public+Opinion+in+1982&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CdNOUe3jB4al4gSVioG4Bg&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAw Dionne, E. J. Why Americans hate Politics. Simon & Schuster, 2004. Levin, Martin A., DiSalvo, Daniel, and Shapiro, Martin M. Building Coalitions, Making Policy: The Politics of the Clinton, Bush, and Obama Presidencies. JHU Press, 2012. Levin, Martin A., Landy, Marc K., and Shapiro, Martin M. Seeking the Center: Politics and Policymaking at the New Century. Georgetown University Press, 2001. U.S. National Library of Medicines. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved on March 20, 2013: https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hsrinfo/health_economics.html Read More