The Reinterpretation of Dreams: An Evolutionary Hypothesis of the Function of Dreaming - Essay Example

?Psychology Essays Essay Revonsuo, A. “The Reinterpretation of Dreams: An Evolutionary Hypothesis of the Function of Dreaming.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences (2000), Vol. 23: 783-1121. Dreaming is a common human experience and researchers have constantly attempted to understand and explain the functioning of dreaming. For the most part, dream theorists have concluded that dreaming is by and large no more than a “random by-product of REM sleep physiology” bereft of “any natural function” (Revonsuo 783). Revonsuo also rejects psychological theories that dreams are a method of emotional healing and adjustment to waking problems (p. 882). As Revonsuo argues that nightmares do not support psychological theories according to which dreams serve emotional healing and adjustment problems. Revonsuo argues, however, that dream content is not as random as theorists claim. In fact, dream content is not only highly organized, but also highly selective. While dreaming occurs, the brain recreates a complicated representation of the world and these representations can either exaggerate waking world experiences of downplay them (Revonsuo 783). Revonsuo also argues that the content of dreams illustrates that dreams are mediated by specific experiences in the waking world. As a result, Revonsuo hypothesizes that dreams are therefore biological functions that serve to “simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance” (p. 783). Revonsuo supports his hypothesis by arguing that empirical studies consistently demonstrate that dream content is usually associated with “threatening elements” (p. 883). In other words, dreams usually involve negative experiences and rarely involve positive experiences. For example, a study conducted by Hall and Van de Castle in 1966) involved dream recollections from 500 females and 500 males between the ages of 18 and 25. The contents of the dream recollections revealed that 80% of the dream contents were negative experiences and only 20% contained positive experiences. Relying on the study conducted by Hall and Van de Castle, Revonsuo observes that a majority of the negative dreams were comprised of attacks or apprehensions of attacks from strange men or animals and in each case the dreamer either took flight or attempted to take flight or hid, or immediate arose from sleep (p. 884). Revonsuo evaluates why strange men and/or animals are the predominant threats in dream contents. Revonsuo goes back to the experiences of primitive man and notes that our ancestors existed in an environment in which animals were persistent threats. Our ancestors developed a survival instinct in which running, hiding or otherwise escaping became a staple coping mechanism. These human fears and instincts continue to haunt modern man. Dreaming simulates and perpetuates our instinctive and ancestral “threat-avoidance programs” (Revonsuo 884). Moreover, human relations were such that men often fought with one another for access to resources necessary for basic living. Although today, interactions with strange men are rarely threatening, it remains true that violence and wars are more frequently committed by males than by females. Therefore unpleasant dream contents in which strange men are the aggressor are also rooted in our ancestors’ survival instincts (Revonsuo 884). Essentially, Revonsuo concludes that dreams represent simulations of threats and that actions played out in dreams are actually representations of waking world experiences of possibilities. Dreaming about perceptions of threats and mechanisms for avoiding threats is no more than a rehearsal or simulation technique conducted in a relatively safe location: the dream world (Revonsuo). Essay 2: Kirsch, I.; Lynn, S. J.; Vigorito, M. and Miller, R. R. “The Role of Cognition in Classical and Operant Conditioning.” Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 4(2004): 369-392. Previously classical condition was perceived as a reflexive response to external stimuli. For example, for instance an observable threat to the eye would automatically elicit eye blinking. Likewise operant conditioning was perceived as a voluntary response to stimuli that may not be obvious. For example, an individual may wink voluntarily where there is no “well-defined antecedent stimuli” (Kirsch, Lynn, Vigorito & Miller 370). The classical conditioning and operant conditioning psychological learning theories assumed that a link between stimulus and response (SR) as opposed to perceptions relative to outcomes or expectancies (Kirsch et al. 372). More recently, psychology learning theorists have cast doubt on the classical conditioning and operant theories. Although psychologists today agree that classical conditioning and operant theories correctly assume that operant and classical conditioning result in behavioural changes, they disagree with respect to the implied “processes by which these changes are produced” (Kirsch et al. 370). It is now largely agreed that classical conditioning is process of reflecting on outcome as a result of stimuli and operant learning is likewise a reflecting process in which response is stimulated by outcomes or expectancies (Kirsch et al. 370). Contemporary psychologists tend to disagree on the mediating role that higher order cognitive functioning plays in operant learning and classical conditioning processes. For example, classical conditioning informs that stimuli results in expectations that an outcome will occur in response. For instance, the sound of a bell ringing may indicate that food can be expected. Operant learning informs that specific behaviour will result in specific outcomes. For example, it is perceived that food will be discovered in a specific location. The reality is, that not all stimuli have associative links. For instance, a specific song can serve as a stimuli for a person who is not present. But this would not necessarily indicate that the person will be present since there are other “contextual cues that tell us that the person will not appear” (Kirsch et al. 372). Thus, higher order cognition mediates classical conditioning and operant learning (Kirsch et al.). Studies conducted as early as 1939 by Tolman indicate that higher order cognition plays a mediating role in classical conditioning and operant learning and thus learning and resulting behavior is not mechanical. Tolman’s study involved rats in a maze in which the behavior of rats was observed by a study called vicarious trial and error. Tolman’s study indicated that the rats ran around hesitantly, and looked one way or another and located selected places in the maze seemingly deciding whether or not food could be located in one location or another. The rats demonstrated that as they ran around they began to catch on and were able to discriminate between what stimuli to respond to and what stimuli to ignore. Tolman, therefore, concluded that the rats developed a cognitive landscape of the task of locating food. Evaluative conditioning therefore takes place in cases where higher order cognitive functioning operates to mediate between the associations between stimuli and expectancies/outcomes. In this regard, learning occurs without “awareness” and is coupled with resistance to some forms of stimulus (Kirsch et al. 381). Higher order cognition can also result in the devaluing of stimulus previously reinforced by specific responses. Thus Kirsch et al. argue that there is sufficient evidence from empirical research indicating that classical conditioning and operant learning are not always mechanical and automatic human conditioning and learning. In fact, evidence suggests that higher order cognition can mediate the expected automatic responses to stimuli. Essay 3: Martinez-Ortega, J.; Jurado, D.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M. A. and Gurpegui, M. “Nicotine Dependence, Use of Illegal Drugs and Psychiatric Morbidity.” Addictive Behaviors, (2006) Vol. 31: 1722-1729. Martinez-Ortega, Martinez-Gonzalez and Gurpequi conducted a study investigating the link between nicotine and smoking addiction and psychiatric morbidity. The study included 290 adults at a primary health care facility. 58% of the respondents were patients, 34% were relatives of the patients and 8% were staff members at the primary health care facility. The respondents participated in interviews which elicited information about the respondents’ use of tobacco, caffeine, alcohol and unlawful drugs (Martinez-Ortega et al., n. p.). The study was justified on the basis that the link between substance dependency and abuse and psychiatric or mental disorders has been firmly established in the psychology field. There is evidence in the literature that “affective, anxiety and psychotic disorders” are linked to the on-going use of tobacco and nicotine addiction. There is also evidence in the literature that there is a link between anxiety and caffeine. There are also consistent reports in the literature that alcohol dependence and alcohol abuse are linked to “psychotic, affective and anxiety disorders” (Martinez-Ortega et al., n. p.). The literature also establishes a link between tobacco and nicotine abuse and the use of, abuse of, or addiction to alcohol and unlawful drugs. Moreover, studies in the literature have established a link between tobacco addiction and caffeine addiction. In addition, studies have linked alcohol dependence on cannabis, nicotine and caffeine addiction. Martinez-Ortega et al., therefore concluded that: Since there is an association among the use of these substances, the aim of the present study was to clarify the association of smoking and nicotine dependence with psychiatric morbidity, and to control for the potential confounding effect of smoking on the relationship between the use of other substances and psychiatric morbidity (p. 1723). The population sample in the study included patients who smoked on a daily basis. A blind survey was conducted prior to the interviews to determine the respondents’ demographic background, their use of tobacco, alcohol, caffeine and illicit drugs as well as the existence of psychiatric morbidity. Psychiatric morbidity was measured by virtue of the General Health Questionnaire which contains 28 items designed to identify psychiatric morbidity (Martinez-Ortega et al., n. p.). The study found that of the 100 daily smokers, 27 were classified as highly dependent on nicotine, 204 of the participants were found to be caffeine users and 55 consumed more than 200 mg of caffeine each day; 34 used illicit drugs each week. 84 of the respondents had psychiatric morbidity. Using a logistic regression analysis, the study found that nicotine addiction is linked to an increased vulnerability to psychiatric morbidity and the use of illicit drugs heightened the risk of psychiatric morbidity (Martinez-Ortega et al., n. p.). The study also found that there was an associative link between the uses of different substances. The study also found that there was a connection between high nicotine use and psychiatric morbidity but no appreciable like between casual or non-addictive smoking and psychiatric morbidity. This finding contradicts the findings of Breslau, Novak and Kessler, study conducted in 2004 which found a substantial link between depression and anxiety disorders and all smokers regardless of dependency levels. The study also found that psychiatric morbidity among alcohol users was present only for users who abused alcohol or were characterized as alcohol dependent. The study also found that any use of unlawful drugs was linked to psychiatric morbidity even after controlling for smoking (Martinez-Ortega et al., n. p.). Essay 4: Alavi, S.S.; Maracy, M.R.; Jannatifard, F. and Eslami, M. “The Effect of Psychiatric Symptoms on the Internet Addiction Disorder in Isfahan’s University Students.” Journal of Res. Med. Sci. (June 2011) Vol. 16(6): 793-800. Alavi, Maracy, Jannatifard and Eslami conducted a study for determining the link between psychiatric symptoms and internet addiction. The study hypothesized that excessive internet addiction is linked to psychiatric symptoms and are more especially linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder. The study was a cross-sectional study involving 250 students from a random population selection at Isfahan’s universities. The respondents completed a questionnaire designed to collect demographic information, the Young Diagnostic Questionnaire and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revision. The results of the questionnaires and checklist were analysed utilizing the multiple logistic regression technique (Alavi et al., n. p.). The study was justified on the grounds that globally, internet use has increased exponentially. In Iran, more than 32 million internet users were identified as of 2009. All indications are therefore that internet has become an important and frequent part of the daily lives of people all over the world as well as in Iran. Complicating matters, psychologists, social pathologists and educators have all warned that too much internet use can have both negative physical and psychological effects. When people use the internet for more than 38 hours a week and essentially have little control over their lives they are typically defined as addicted to the internet (Alavi et al.). Internet addiction is typically characterized as similar to gambling addiction and is “an impulsive control disorder” although it “does not involve drugs” (Alavi, et al. 793). Niemz, Griffiths and Banyard conducted a study in which it was determined that pathological internet users were those who excessively used the internet and that its excessive use cause social, academic, social and interpersonal difficulties. Studies have also found that excessive use of the internet can cause increased degrees of psychological arousal, irregular sleeping and eating patterns, reduced physical activity, depression, OCD and anxiety disorders (Alavi et al.). The study conducted by Alavi et al., found that male students used the internet more frequently than female students did. More over men were three times more likely to become addicted to the internet than women were. Other studies have found no gender distinctions between internet usage and likelihood of addiction. Alavi et al. noted that the disparity in these findings and the present student may be culturally related. Alavi and his colleagues’ study found that excessive internet use was connected to a number of psychiatric disorders. Internet addiction therefore causes a number of psychiatric symptoms suggesting that internet addiction can negatively impact the mental health of young users. Alavi et al. maintain that the findings in their study are consistent with a number of empirically based studies in the literature. A number of studies have found that excessive internet use can create psychiatric difficulties. Studies have found that internet addicts have exhibited both psychological and psychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety, and often suffer from low-self-esteem. Studies have also established a link between internet addiction and psychological maladies including loneliness, depression and compulsive disorders (Alavi et al., n. p.). Alavi et al. suggests that the results of their study together with the evidence reported in the literature draws attention to the potential ill-effects of the internet on young people. Given the psychological consequences of excessive internet use, it is now necessary for policy-makers, educators and parents/guardians to consider educating children about the appropriate use of the internet and to establish limits so as to safeguard against future addiction to and abuse of the internet. It is also important for psychologists and psychiatrists to know of the possible psychological and psychiatric symptoms associated with internet addiction so that they can more effectively help patients with internet addiction problems (Alavi et al., n.p.). Essay 5: Bushman, B. J. and Anderson, C. A. “Violent Video Games and Hostile Expectations: A Test of the General Aggression Model.” Psychology and Social Psychology Bulletin, (December 2002) Vol. 28(12): 1679-1686. Bushman and Anderson maintain that it has already been firmly established in the literature that violent media increases the likelihood of aggressive behaviour. Therefore, Bushman and Anderson conducted a study to determine why violent media increases the likelihood of aggression. In this regard, the study conducted a test designed to determine whether or not violent video games functioned to “produce a hostile expectation bias” or the “tendency to expect others to react to potential conflicts with aggression” (Bushman & Anderson 323). In this regard, the study was conducted using 224 respondents who were asked to participate in a violent and non-violent video game. The participants were then required to read a neutral narrative that might have suggested a possibility of conflict. The respondents were asked to predict what the characters in the narrative might do and what they thought and felt about the characters as the narrative flowed (Bushman & Anderson 323). The study was justified on the grounds that more recent school violence involving mass shootings such as those committed at Columbine High School and the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon have renewed debates and concern over the effects of media violence. Bushman and Anderson argue that although the public is largely divided over the effects of the violent media on aggression, the scientific community is largely agreed. A meta-analysis of the literature, conducted by the authors in 2001 reveals that there is no doubt that scientists have established an undisputed link between exposure to violent media and aggressive behaviour (Bushman and Anderson). However, there is a paucity of studies in the literature identifying the psychological “mechanisms through which exposure to violent media produces both its short- and long-term effects on aggressive behaviour” (Bushman & Anderson 1679-1680). Bushman and Anderson’s study was intended to fill the gap in the literature. The study tested for four diverse gams produced affects using independent variables of expectation bias, thoughts, and feelings. The study found that those who played the violent video games saw the main character as having more aggressive traits than those who played the non-violent games. Likewise, those who played the violent games attributed more aggressive thoughts and feelings to the main character in the narrative than those who played the non-violent video games (Bushman & Anderson). Bushman and Anderson found that: Playing violent video game for just 20 minutes produced significant increases in expectations that potential conflict situations would be handled aggressively. Violent video game participants expected more aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviours from the main characters in the stories. This occurred even though participants were not provoked or annoyed in any way (p.1683). In other words, the study conducted by Bushman and Anderson answers the question as to why exposure to media violence is linked to aggression. It determines that even a short period of exposure to media violence intensifies expectations of aggression as a means of resolving a conflict. The study also demonstrates that even where there is no conflict, exposure to media violence can influence the exposed individual to misinterpret situations as possible hotbeds of conflict which in turn leads to expectations of aggression and thus invokes aggressive behaviour. Works Cited Alavi, S.S.; Maracy, M.R.; Jannatifard, F. and Eslami, M. “The Effect of Psychiatric Symptoms on the Internet Addiction Disorder in Isfahan’s University Students.” Journal of Res. Med. Sci. (June 2011) Vol. 16(6): 793-800. Print. Breslau, N.; Novak, S. P.; Kessler, R. C. “Daily Smoking and the Subsequent Onset of Psychiatric Disorders.” Psychological Medicine. (2004) Vol. 34: 323-333. Print. Bushman, B. J. and Anderson, C. A. “Violent Video Games and Hostile Expectations: A Test of the General Aggression Model.” Psychology and Social Psychology Bulletin, (December 2002) Vol. 28(12): 1679-1686. Print. Bushman, B. J. and Anderson, C. A. “Media Violence and the American Public: Scientific Facts Versus Media Misinformation.” American Psychologist, (2001) Vol. 56: 477-489. Print. Hall, C. S. and Van de Castle, R. L. The Content Analysis of Dreams. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966. Print. Kirsch, I.; Lynn, S. J.; Vigorito, M. and Miller, R. R. “The Role of Cognition in Classical and Operant Conditioning.” Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 4(2004): 369-392. Print. Martinez-Ortega, J.; Jurado, D.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M. A. and Gurpegui, M. “Nicotine Dependence, Use of Illegal Drugs and Psychiatric Morbidity.” Addictive Behaviours, (2006) Vol. 31: 1722-1729. Print. Niemz, K.; Grifiths, M. and Banyard, P. “Prevalence of Pathological Internet Use Among University Students and Correlations with Self-Esteem, the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), and Distribution.” Cyberpsychological Behaviour, (December 2005) Vol. 8(6): 562-570. Print. Revonsuo, A. “The Reinterpretation of Dreams: An Evolutionary Hypothesis of the Function of Dreaming.” Behavioural and Brain Sciences, (2000), Vol. 23: 783-1121. Print. Tolman, E. C. “Prediction of Vicarious Trial and Error by Means of the Schematic Sowbug.” Psychological Review, (1938) Vol. 46: 318-336. Print. Read More

 

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