Islamic Philosophy Influence on Western Philosophy in 10th Century and Onwards - Essay Example

How did Islamic philosophy influence Western philosophy in 10th century and onwards? The parallels between the comprehensions of Islamic philosophy and the Western conceptions of the notion have been essentially linked with each other through the impact of the former’s contribution upon the latter specifically in the period of 10th century and preceding eras. In this paper, the focus of the analysis on the foundations of Islamic and Western philosophy is based upon examining and thoroughly assessing the manner in which Islamic philosophers emerged as a source of guidance, inspiration and influence for their Western contemporaries and students who did not necessarily study under their direction but were enlightened by the thinkers’ views through their texts and writings which spread across the globe. For the purposes of fulfilling the objectives of this paper, the discussion specifically expounds upon the philosophical relationships of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Thomas Aquinas, Al Ghazali, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Descartes and the influence of Islamic philosophical ideas on Maimonides. According to El Diwani (2005, p. 5), while the role of Muslim philosophy in shaping the beliefs of Western thinkers is attributable to several factors, the primary influence can be assessed in terms of humanistic element of Islamic philosophy which was transferred into the perceptions of Western thinkers. As noted by El Diwani (2005, p. 5) Islamic philosophy aided “…Western scholastics in harmonizing philosophy with faith”. This observation is largely linked with the notion that during an epoch where much of the Western thinkers’ ideologies were marred by the limited and restricted approach of which was imposed upon them by the Christian church, Muslim philosophers delved into expounding upon the wealth of knowledge that had been gathered by the Greeks, thereby, enhancing the scope of existing knowledge to discover greater opportunities. Consequently, at the same time the Western mind had become rather stunted by the onset of the “Dark Age” while, the Western lands of Spain and Sicily accommodated the advancement of what can be termed as a wave of Islamic rationalism (El Diwani, 2005). Keeping in view the commencement of the incorporation of Islamic philosophical ideas in the realm of Western philosophy, Hourani (1989, p. 259) notes that the recognition of Arab contributions in the discipline did not come until the mainstream publications of Alfred Von Kremer, who launched the first methodical attempt to define the extent of Islamic contributions in the shaping of Western philosophical thought. Gradually, through the assessment of several texts and literatures it was concluded that several German philosophers including Hegel had substantiated their ideologies through the assessment of Arab thinker’s contributions. Highlighting the name of Ibn Khaldun in this regard, Hourani (1989, p. 259) states that Ibn Khaldun’s primary influences encompassed the understanding of the critical and comprehensive notions of culture itself in addition with the broad concept of civilization. Accordingly, culture and civilization were categorized as fundamental instruments which could act as the drivers of individuals’ expression and also the key to the identification of their spirit (Hourani 1989, p. 259). Ibn Khaldun’s assessment, the focal point of which remained ‘the people’ is evident in Western conceptions of the duties of the state as a foundation for citizens and one of the fundamental sources for the demonstration of peoples’ spirit. In this case, the Islamic philosophy of Ibn Khaldun contributed towards the development of a notion which encompasses both social and religious roles where the concept of the state is identified as an inherently social mechanism, the success and stability of which is dependent upon the effectiveness of governance measures including the implementation of laws (Hourani 1989, p. 259). On the other hand, the religious spectrum of Ibn Khaldun’s philosophy is rooted in identifying religion as the pillar which supports familial affairs and also contributes towards the maintenance of community life (Hourani 1989, p. 259). Incorporating the perspective of Western legal philosophy in the discussion, Goolam’s (2003, p. 35) insight into the assessment suggests that it is important to acknowledge the notion that Islamic philosophy has in fact helped in shaping what is now identified as the renowned discipline of European legal philosophy. Goolam (2003, p. 35) establishes that the primary examination of the matter of Western philosophy brings into the discussion the distinguished suggestion of Descartes which states ‘I think therefore I am’ and the presentation of the argument that the philosopher’s ideology has in fact been directly adopted by the comprehensions of Muslim scholars Ibn Sina and Al-Ghazali who continued their field of work approximately five centuries prior to Descartes’ revelation of his prominent proposition. Descartes’ philosophical journey begins in his acceptance of the idea that what cannot be proven true shall not be acknowledged, accepted or admitted as reality or a fact, henceforth, for establishing his philosophical ideology the thinker resorts to the mechanism of doubt and proceeds to doubt everything which he believes is dubitable (Goolam 2003, p. 39). Proceeding from these understandings, Descartes goes on to postulate that even God is dubitable; however, it is important to identify that to maintain the validity of notions that remain unchallenged such as those calculations which are associated with the discipline of mathematics, Descartes asserts that these things cannot be classified under the umbrella of doubt (Olson 1988, p. 407). Consequently, once doubt emerges upon various concepts, Descartes reaffirms that someone or something in fact doubts everything and this is notion itself is a comprehension which is indubitable (Olson 1988, p. 407). The preceding understanding leads to the formulation of ‘I think therefore I am’ and lays the basis for Descartes next theoretical view which is that of the concept of dualism (Goolam 2003, p. 40). The being’s position as a thinking individual is what evidences existence itself and provides a basis for recognizing the distinction between soul and body because the former is effortlessly identifiable in comparison with the latter (Goolam 2003, p. 41). Later, Descartes theoretical premise evolves into an acknowledgment of the existence of God – an undeniable and irrefutable claim which states that God is supreme, eternal and necessary. According to Goolam (2003, p. 41), the three fundamental elements which can be extracted from the thinking of Descartes are associated with 1) doubt 2) dualism and 3) God. To answer the key question of this paper objectively, it is important to determine the extent to which Descartes’ philosophy can be deemed as being influenced by the comprehensions of notable Islamic philosophers such as Al-Ghazali and Ibn Sina. Goolam (2003, p. 41) claims that Al-Ghazali’s acceptance of doubt and the uncertainty of a being’s five senses established the basis of his works, moreover, as Descartes’ who emerged 500 years after Al-Ghazali doubted the existence of God as an initial action to justify his doubt of what can be doubted, Al-Ghazali too ventured into this realm by stating the rejection of whatever stood as the ultimate authority on the issue of belief. Moreover, even the chosen examples of the two philosophers to justify their points are comparable because they base their comprehensions on the premise of the dissimilar states of dreaming and being awake where the former can emerge from deceit and showing surroundings, events or circumstances in a completely different light as opposed to reality itself (Goolam 2003, p. 42). Following the analysis of evidence which strongly suggests that Descartes’ philosophy has been shaped by Al-Ghazali, the next point of argument is that of dualism and whether like Descartes’ notion of doubt and skepticism it too can be proven as the thinking of the Islamic philosopher. According to Goolam (2003, p. 42) Descartes’ dualism maintains that the body and the soul are essentially different and distinguishable from each other, similarly, Al-Ghazali too establishes that there is an absence of a direct relationship between the body and soul because soul is what is associated with the creator and it is what sustains the body thereby, creating interdependence between the two. While, Descartes’ key influence for the development of his theory on doubt and dualism has been Al-Ghazali, his statement which acknowledges the necessity of God is linked with the understandings of Ibn Sina on the subject (Goolam 2003, p. 43). The key point of observation in proving the association between Descartes’ and Ibn Sina’s ideas is rooted in the notion of necessity which makes God necessary due to the absence of reason which essentially exists for everything else (Amin n.d.). Even though, Descartes’ works have not featured a formal acknowledgement of Al-Ghazali’s works as a source of inspiration for his understanding of the realm of philosophy, Sharif (1966) states that for many learners and scholars of philosophy, it is quite difficult to accept that as a philosopher who emerged centuries later, Descartes had remained unbeknownst to the works of Al-Ghazali. This understanding draws the conclusion that Descartes’ works are marked by a strong influence of Al-Ghazali’s teachings who held similar beliefs on the described matters and issues. While, Najm (1966, p. 133) claims that it is not possible to back this observation through evidence for it can only be described on the basis of speculation, the writer notes that any evident differences between Descartes’ and Al-Ghazali’s thinking are rooted in cultural variations of the thinker and even their personal characteristics which may have impacted the chosen applications of the thinkers’ theories it is known that the foundations of Descartes’ theoretical framework on doubt and the selection of doubt as a source of deriving outcomes is one and the same. According to Goichan and Khan (1969), Thomas of Aquina’s philosophical ideas can be traced back to the propositions of both Ibn Rushd and Ibn Sina where, St Thomas’ support for his comprehension of the distinguishing factors between existence and essence can be developed by assessing the foundations of Ibn Sina’s philosophy. In his lecture on the achievements of Thomas of Aquina and Ibn Rushd Dr. Sebastian Gunther (2010) highlights that the educational policies and recommendations of both the thinkers are analogous and depict a strong association. This educational perspective is largely rooted in the scholars’ recommendations of forming “…a connection between divine law, philosophy, and logic” (Gunther, 2010). Similarly, Thomas of Aquina’s conception of education has also been characterized by the incorporation of a theological notion in the realm of education (Gunther 2010). While, Gunther (2010) does maintain that it would be unfair to suggest that Thomas Aquinas’ and Ibn Rushd’s philosophical understandings corresponded on every topic, there is a substantial part of Aquinas’ work which has emerged from the writings of Ibn Rushd. The intriguing fact about the observations which Thomas Aquina chose to pick from Ibn Rushd’s philosophical ideology is that they are related to the root of the philosopher’s arguments and also formulate a basis of his understandings, thus even if the thinkers’ chosen applications of the concepts may differ, their approach is essentially similar and emerges from the same philosophical background. For example, Thomas Aquinas agrees with Ibn Rushd on the significance of scriptural truth as the point where wisdom originates, moreover, Aquinas also believes in putting logic first in quest of exploring knowledge and enhancing human beings’ understanding of life itself and the world which surrounds them (Gunther 2010). Furthermore, the agreement between Aquinas and Ibn Rushd on the methodology of education and teaching is also apparent in the former’s works and certainly these observations have critical implications for how knowledge must be advanced and how teachers must deliver learning to maximize the capabilities and potentials of the students. For example, both Aquinas and Ibn Rushd suggest that academic freedom should not be shackled at any point during the experience of seeking knowledge and this stands true from the point of view of teachers and students (Gunther 2010). Accordingly, Aquinas and Ibn Rushd also emphasize upon learning from the what has already occurred thereby, increasing the importance of history in philosophical comprehensions (Gunther 2010). Moreover, Aquinas’ work Commentary on the Sentences also sheds light on the thinker’s deep inspiration from Islamic philosophy, in several propositions which are present throughout the text, Aquinas’ highlights his agreement with Ibn Rushd on 1) the matter of time and its perpetual existence which is a series of moments such that one moment shall precede or succeed the other 2) the acceptance of motion and 3) the existence of a vacuum as the central point of inception for the world (Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on Latin West 2008). Accordingly, Ibn Sina appears as a source of influence for Aquinas on the notion of what God wills and the nature of his will as something fixed, concrete and unalterable (Black 1999, p. 2; Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on Latin West 2008). In his observation of the relationship between Ibn Rushd and Aquinas, Pasnau (2011) states that the thinkers’ understanding of Aristotle remained a point of argument amongst the philosophers of the time including Aquinas who were uncertain regarding some of the claims put forth by the philosopher that may have otherwise clashed with the Christian theological perspectives of the time, yet it must be acknowledged that it is European philosophical circle which recognized Ibn Rushd’s contributions which had not been appreciated by his own community (Pasnau, 2011). Burell (2004, p. 72) describes Aquinas’ relationship with the kingdom of Islamic philosophy by asserting that it is not fact a source of argument as to why the thinker’s writings have been marked by the essence of the texts which were produced by Ibn Rushd and Ibn Sina. In fact, Islam’s spread in the region of Europe and its neighboring lands only contributed towards the recognition of Muslim philosophy in the region and left a profound impact on the minds of Western thinkers. For Burrell (2004, p. 72) this period in Islamic history led to the emergence of what can be termed as the ‘Islamicate’ which spread across several geographic regions and was not far away from the location of Aquinas himself. Interestingly many scholars such as Burrell (2004, p. 730) postulate that Aquinas’ point of reference for the compilation of Islamic philosophical ideologies was none other than Moses Maimonedes’ Latin scholastics such as the Guide of the Perplexed. Similarly, the Latin translations of Farabi’s texts have also been highlighted as being a critical source of inspiration for Western philosophers which essentially emerged in the Middle Ages, namely Roger Bacon and Raymond Lull who considered Farabi’s work Isha’ al-Ulum as a fundamental foundation of their comprehensions and beliefs (Amin n.d.). Describing those central aspects of Islamic philosophy which shaped the understanding of Western philosophical principles, Fakhry (1983, p. 507) maintains that rationality has always remained a critical component of Islamic philosophy as is depicted by Ibn Rushd or Averroes’ understanding, acknowledgment and acceptance of cognition. Despite of the presence of evidence which suggests that Islamic philosophy has played a fundamental role in contributing towards the propositions of Western thinkers, this fact is seldom acknowledged by modern philosophical circles, Fakhry (1983, p. 513) maintains that this aspect is possibly attributable to the fact that shades of modern philosophy which have come in the form of postmodernism and deconstruction have been characterized by a lack of impact on the thinking of present day Islamic thinking and philosophy. However, this does not mean that earlier contributions of Muslim thinkers on Western philosophy should not be highlighted. References Amin, O. (n.d.) Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West. Renaissance – Monthly Islamic Journal. Accessed from [21st April 2014]. Black, D. L. (1999). Mental Existence in Thomas Aquinas and Avicenna.Mediaeval Studies, 61(1), 45-79. Burrell, D. B. (2004). Thomas Aquinas and Islam. Modern Theology, 20(1), 71-89. El Diwani, R. (2005). 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Philosophy East and West,16(3/4), 133-141. Olson, M. A. (1988). Descartes First Meditation: Mathematics and the Laws of Logic. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 26(3), 407-438. Pasnau, R. (2011). The Islamic Scholar Who Gave Us Modern Philosophy. Humanities. Vol 32/6. Sharif, M. M. (1963). A history of Muslim philosophy: With short accounts of other disciplines and modern renaissance in Muslim lands. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Read More