Plato as One of Historys Greatest Contributors - Case Study Example

Pla One of History’s Greatest Contributors The dictionary typically defines philosophy as “the love of or search for wisdom or knowledge” or “as the theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge and the nature of the universe” (Neufeldt, Goralnik, 1994, p. 1015). With such a general definition, one might begin to understand the complexities involved in studying philosophy as it seems to encompass just about all knowledge pursuits. Perhaps part of the confusion in trying to define the term can be found in the early days of the science when it applied almost universally to all avenues of knowledge in ancient Greece. The term itself derives from an ancient Greek word that translates to “love of wisdom” (Wikipedia, 2005) and it is through several early Greek thinkers that we have arrived at the perceptions we now foster. One of the greatest of these thinkers was Plato, who built off of the ideas of Socrates and others before him and wrote his ideas down in book form for future generations to benefit. His writings have contributed significantly to three main areas of philosophy including metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. In any of these fields, new work is generally founded upon, or based off of, ideas that were first brought forward by Plato more than 2000 years ago. For this reason, it is justified to say that Plato is one of the greatest contributors in the three main areas of philosophy, which are metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Metaphysics It was Plato that blew the doors open on the entire metaphysics question through his easily accessible imagery in his Theory of Forms. Metaphysics, of course, relates to the inner essence of things, the spirit. Through the Theory of Forms, Plato suggests that there is in existence somewhere a perfect ideal of every possible form known to man. According to Plato, reality is not the world of substance and things that we can see in everyday life, but is something more abstract that can only be obtained through intellectual thought (Strathern, 1996, p. 25). In this theory, the ultimate goal was to progress through the levels of reality to the highest level, also known as the greatest good or the ultimate truth. Through this brief description, it can be seen how Plato linked the metaphysical nature of all things, the spiritual or abstract element that comprises the thing, to the concepts of epistemology and ethics as a means of understanding the entire entity rather than a segmented portion of the whole. However, if the original Form from which all things were created already existed in complete perfection within their perfect state and position in relation to all other perfect Forms, then the imperfect creations that were produced from these perfect forms must also have been originally set down in near perfect states, as near as could be to the original. Because they are not the original forms and exist in the material plane within the scope of time and space, they are susceptible to change of a variety of sorts. With each change, they necessarily move further and further away from their originator. This introduces problems as the truth is sought through these many variations, but Plato proposes these can be discovered when seen in the proper light. Metaphysics is introduced through Plato’s allegory in that he calls into question what is the real nature of the things we think we know. In the dialogue Plato presents that is now referred to as the Allegory of the Cave, Socrates explains “here they [human beings] have been from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads” (Kreis, 2004). In this vision, Socrates explains that the human beings are watching a giant screen on which marionettes and other things dance, but the humans can only see the shadows of these moving things. The actual colors and nature of these things cannot be perceived from such a perspective, but not having known anything else, Socrates argues that the humans don’t know there’s something to miss: “To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images” (Kreis, 2004). These shadows of the images are generally taken by the people in the cave to be the perfect Forms that are the ultimate perfection, but because they are in material form, in physical space and time, they must also be subject to the same forces of change all material forms are subject to, thus they can never be the ultimate perfection of Form. Instead, Plato suggests that there are perfect examples of these Forms in some metaphysical space in which they are inviolate to this type of breakdown, somewhere in existence outside of the cave. Just as the people in the cave are seeing shadows, so the people outside of the cave are able to discern more of the Form, such as dimension, color and texture, but are still missing an element of the True Form. Thus, when we view a particular Form, we must recognize in it both the fact that it exists in front of us as well as the fact that everything that represents that form is not everything that it is – it is both everything and nothing of the original. As he explains in his allegory of the cave, Plato does not view reality as being the world of substance and things that we can see in everyday life, but is something more abstract that, once understood, can lead one to the greatest good. In determining the path to the greatest good, Plato differs from Socrates in the proper method of obtaining that level. Where Socrates says it is through right action, Plato says it is through correct thought (Strathern, 1996, p. 25). In the case of humans, the perfect form is commonly identified as the soul, which, existing in the realm of ideals, begins in a perfect state and can only be harmed by the wrong actions defined by Socrates (Magee, 1998, p. 29) or by the wrong thoughts according to Plato. Admittedly, this is a fine line of distinction as action typically follows thought, but it remains an important distinction nonetheless as thought does not always precede action and action can take place without full agreement in thought. In determining who should be leader, it becomes obvious through this story that the uneducated individual would not have the ability to reach the deep level of thought required to be an effective leader. Instead, the leader must be someone who has been encouraged to step outside of the cave, have a long enough look around to discern the true aspect of things and then follow the call to assist his former cave-mates. Epistemology In the Allegory of the Cave and thanks to the concepts of metaphysics that have thus been introduced, indicating that the true nature of things is perhaps unavailable to the naked human eye, Plato introduces also the science of epistemology, or the discovery of what is true knowledge or even if knowledge is possible. Epistemological illumination uses our human sensory experience of sight as a means of identifying the world around us to form an analogy to the way in which our minds and intellect are used as a means of understanding the fundamental truths behind what makes that world work. This analogy pre-supposes three basic components that are shared by both sight and mind. “First, we must possess the relevant cognitive power (sight in the case of sensory vision; intellect in the case of intellective cognition). Second, there must be an appropriate object for that power. … And third, there must be an agent whose activity enables the cognitive power and its object to make contact” (MacDonald, 1998). In sensory vision, this agent is most often called light, which illuminates the objects around us and make it possible for us to see them. For cognition, it is proposed that there is an intellectual light, which makes it possible for us to understand the objects that are being placed in front of us. In his allegory of the cave, Plato also uses light as a symbol of knowledge to set forth the idea that mankind is only living in an illusion of life, that the reality is beyond the scope of our own senses and can only be reached through the intellect. In the dialogue, Socrates explains that when one of these chained individuals from the cave is released from the bonds that bind him and is brought into the true light of day, “he will suffer sharp pains; the glare will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities of which in his former state he had seen the shadows” (Kreis, 2004). Plato indicates that the light of knowledge seen within the cave is a false light, provided by the flickering flames of a campfire, perhaps, as compared to the true light of the heavens represented by the moon, stars and, finally, the sun. However, even when facing the true reality, these individuals will strive to reject what they see, still preferring to believe that what they once knew is still real or remain incapable of believing that, having once been deceived, they are not deceived still. This is the essence of epistemology. However, Socrates suggests in the dialogue that knowledge can be acquired in stages by explaining that once this individual is forced to live in this newer light, the person will begin to understand their new perception as being the true reality by degrees: “… first he will see the shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven” (Kreis, 2004). From this acceptance, Socrates theorized that the person would be very reluctant to return to the cave and would instead take pity on those he had left behind him in the cave in their ignorance. If that person returned to help the others and could make himself accepted as such, Socrates indicates the people would have a tendency to idolize him as a god or a paragon of knowledge, but having only been ahead of them in seeing the true reality, this leader would be reluctant to take on such a role. However, if the person had returned to their imprisonment within the cave before their sight was adjusted, they would instead be ridiculed, considered crazy by the inhabitants of the cave who had never left and held as an example for why no one should try venturing out of the cave. Ethics The Allegory of the Cave and the Theory of Forms are essential to understand if one is to understand Plato’s approach to ethics in the development of his city-state, the Republic. One of the primary difficulties in studying ethics lies in determining just exactly how this term is to be defined. It is important to understand that the definition of ethics as it is considered by philosophers does not merely constitute a choice between right and wrong behavior. The dictionary defines the term “ethics” as “the study of standards of conduct and moral judgment” (Neufeldt, Goralnik, 1994, p. 466) and the term “morality” as “moral quality or character; rightness or wrongness, as of an action” (p. 882). Even this much of an explanation is unclear, though, as terms such as “standards of conduct,” “moral judgment” and “moral character” have yet to be defined and are potentially defined differently depending upon the answer to yet another question – what is the greatest good? Without knowing the definition of the greatest good, it is very difficult to determine with any certainty what is right and what is wrong. However, once “good” is defined, everything else becomes much easier. Right will then be identified as that thing that brings one closer to the greatest good while wrong pushes the greatest good further away. This, then, is where the philosopher steps in, helping to not only discover the best theory of right conduct and the good life (what we will call ethics), but also to help shape our understanding of the practice of right conduct and the good life (hereafter referred to as morality). (Sahakian, Sahakian, 1966, p. 31). In much of his writings, Plato provides ample description of his concept of ethics and morality as a means of establishing a solid foundation for his concept of the perfect leader; enabling future generations to expand, analyze and refine these thoughts in different ways. As seen in the writings of Plato, one of the requirements for a moral and ethical man is that he must first know “his spiritual self as it really is, including all its shortcomings, strengths and potentialities” (Sahakian, Sahakian, 1966, p. 32). Plato, pulled together the ideas of his mentor and Pythagoras to combine them with his own response to what he’d seen of the world to develop his Theory of Forms. Another important aspect of Plato’s ideas revolve around his realization that an unhappy man cannot make an effective ruler because he is continually struggling to find what will make him happy rather than being concerned with the welfare of the state, thereby helping define what he means when he mentions ethics. Further evidence of Socrates’ influence can be seen in Plato’s idea that only the unjust are unhappy, so to be happy (to achieve the greatest good), one must first be just, which requires a developed sense of ethics. Plato attempts to define the term “justice” in his first chapter of The Republic. This is done by repeating the discussion held by Socrates and several others regarding the issue. As each statement is given and each is answered with an example of an exception, Plato develops the concept that justice is not a singularly defined, standard answer applicable to all things but is instead a complicated calculation of ethical relationships in which all variables must be taken into consideration. Justice is a habit of conscious, ethical consideration of the greatest good regarding the various elements involved in much the same way that epistemology attempts to discover what is true knowledge and metaphysics attempts to discover the true essence. Arguments against Plato Many critics claim Plato was not the greatest contributor to modern philosophy, giving the credit either to his predecessors or to those who have come after him. For example, surviving portions of the writings of Xenophanes show some of the earliest leanings toward the idea of a “moral, natural way of life appropriate to man” (Jaspers, 1993, p. 11), ideas that would later be developed by Socrates and his followers. Xenophanes even went so far as to publicly ridicule the popular Olympic games and mythological stories of his day because, in his mind, none of these things were useful, they “… do not enrich the treasure chambers of the state” (Jaspers, 1993, p.16), in other words, the benefit of mankind’s internal journeys. It is Socrates, though, who is usually presented as the father of Western philosophy as he was among the first we know of who truly turned his attention away from contemplation of the nature of the world around him to the inner nature of humankind. As seen in the writings of Plato regarding Socrates, one of the requirements for a moral and ethical man is that they must first knows “his spiritual self as it really is, including all its shortcomings, strengths and potentialities” (Sahakian, Sahakian, 1966, p. 32). Throughout his writings, Plato gives credit to Socrates for the ideas he brings forward rather than claiming them to be his own ideas. Like Socrates, Descartes has been labeled the father of Western philosophy, although, in deference to the ancient Greek, the term ‘modern’ is often inserted to make a distinction. Descartes made the ideas of dualism popular in the early 17th century, reintroducing the concepts of metaphysics and epistemology back into philosophical consideration. He is generally credited with introducing a shift in thinking from the empiricist school of thought in which people believed all knowledge ultimately comes to us through our senses to the rationalist school of thought in which it was believed that human reason was the source for all human knowledge. “He developed a dualistic system in which he distinguished radically between mind, the essence of which is thinking, and matter, the essence of which is extension in three dimensions. Descartes’ metaphysical system is intuitionist, derived by reason from innate ideas, but his physics and physiology, based on sensory knowledge, are mechanistic and empiricist” (Watson 2002). In other words, Descartes saw a difference between the physical form and the metaphysical manifestation of that form. Counterarguments As has been suggested earlier, much of what we know about Socrates and other philosophers prior to him come down to us either in fragments or through Plato’s books (Strathern, 1996). As a result, it is difficult to determine which ideas are Plato’s and which are those of Socrates. Whether the ideas are Plato’s or Socrates’, we would not know about them without the intervention of Plato himself. While Plato suggests that Socrates felt one way and illustrates how he feels quite another, there is no proof that any of this was ever true except in Plato’s imagination. Because this separation cannot be made, to argue for the greatness of one of these philosophers is essentially to argue for the greatness of both. The ideas explored by Descartes, on the other side of the spectrum, are quite similar to the concepts already brought forward by Plato. In suggesting that the object and its essence are two distinct entities, Descartes presents Plato’s Theory of Forms in a more accessible format for the more modern masses. He gives it greater emphasis as well by supporting his ideas with the addition of a more scientific method than that applied by Plato. Conclusions Through his writings, Plato collected the various philosophies he’d studied in his own time and synthesized them through his own understanding to present the world with his theories regarding metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Although they weren’t labeled as such during his time, Plato’s ideas expressed through his Theory of Forms, Allegory of the Cave and the Republic provide the building blocks of these branches of thought. The Theory of Forms introduces the concept that the things around us are merely representative while the Allegory of the Cave calls into question the nature of knowledge and the knowable. Through the development of his perfect society in the Republic, Plato offers up his concept of ethics as the pursuit of the greatest good. Although Socrates and Descartes are more often given the name the ‘father of Western philosophy’, both of these philosophers depend to a large extent upon Plato to bring their ideas into focus. As a result, Plato is undoubtedly one of the greatest contributors to Western philosophy in the known world. Works Cited Jaspers, K. The Great Philosophers. Vol. 3. New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1993. Kreis, Steven. “Plate: The Allegory of the Cave.” May 13, 2004. The History Guide. November 3, 2008. MacDonald, Scott. “Illumination.” Islamic Philosophy. Cambridge: Routledge, 1998. November 4, 2008 < http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/K036.htm> Magee, B. The Story of Philosophy. New York: DK Publishing, 1998. Neufeldt, V. and Guralnik, D. (eds.) Webster’s New World Dictionary. New York: Prentice Hall, 1994. p. 1015. Sahakian, W. and Sahakian, M. Ideas of the Great Philosophers. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1966. Strathern, P. Plato in 90 Minutes. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996. Watson, R. “Rene Descartes: 1596-1650.” The Encyclopedia Britannica. Scottsdale, AR: Pearson Software, 2002. November 4, 2008 Wikipedia contributors. “Philosophy.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 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