John Stuart Mill and His Practical Works - Article Example

JOHN STUART MILL “The philosophical personalities”, Thomas & Thomas view, “represent an adventure in thinking. And when we examine the lives of the philosophers we find that the procession of a man’s thoughts can be as exciting a spectacle as the pageantry of a man’s deeds. Our world becomes wider, our imagination richer and our life more colorful and zestful as a result of our companionship with the travelers of the spirit and the pioneers of thought.” (1960:1). The same is the case with renowned philosopher of Victorian times John Stuart Mill, who has left indelible imprints on the pages of history by dint of his intellect, valuable philosophical works and theoretical frames. John Stuart Mill is one of the most prominent and influential philosophers and political economists the world has ever produced. He was a learned scholar, thinker and politico-economic analyst of nineteenth century England. He had completed profound and scrupulous reading of the prominent Greek, Roman, Latin and English philosophers and intellectuals at a very young age. His father developed taste for learning and literature in him when he was only three years old; it is therefore he could easily read the original works of great classical thinkers and authors including Aesop, Lucian, Diogenes, Herodotus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Laertius as well as contemporary authors like Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Jeremy Bentham and others, in his early school years. His writings depict the vastness of his knowledge and acquaintance with the Classics as he describes differences of views among the philosophers on morality in his essays on Utilitarianism in these words: "Neither thinkers, nor mankind at large seem nearer to being unanimous on the subject, than when the youth Socrates listened to the old Protagoras, and asserted (if Platos dialogue be grounded on a real conversation) the theory of utilitarianism against the popular morality of the so called sophist." (1853:2). His works and writings, full of classical allusions, regarding traditional thoughtfulness and contemporary updates, wide open various dimensions of vigilance and wisdom to the readers and students alike. “Mill’s contributions”, Zaidi writes, “to the political science, economics and sociological theory as well as social sciences serve like a guiding star for the intellectuals, freedom-lovers, legislators and torch-bearers of human rights in past, present and the future years to come as well.” (2004:128). It is why the works of Mill are still recommended not only for the study of political theories at graduate levels of colleges and universities all over the globe, but also his works are recommended and referred to by the intellectuals and moralists in discussions, debates and dialogues. Mill has discussed the wide range of philosophical thoughts in his famous “Autobiography”. The most influential of his works include “Utilitarianism”, “On Liberty” and “On Representative Governments”. “Mills teacher-father James”, Holmes states, “had instilled in his son the ideas of Benthamite Utilitarianism, the principle of the greatest happiness of the greatest number.” (2001). There existed two schools of thoughts that influenced the promotion of government interventions in social conditions included the Evangelicals and the Utilitarians. Utilitarianism is sociological school of thought where works and ideas of renowned political scientist and lawyer Jeremy Bentham maintain lion’s share. The idea looks for the concept of the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. It is the product of nineteenth century England, where the social thinkers challenged the British economic policies. “It was the antislavery movement”, Arnstein opines, “that helped to forge a new instrument in British domestic politics---the weapon of organized moral indignation.” (1988: 47). Although utilitarianism remained a prominent social doctrine for the entire 19th century, its roots are even deeper in the times of Hobbes, Locke and even to Epicurus. The contemporary French sociologists had ceased to accept the assumption that social order would automatically be forthcoming in the state of free competition among the individuals. “No longer were humans viewed as rational and calculating entrepreneurs”, Turner suggests, “in a free, open, unregulated and competitive market place. Nor was the doctrine of the invisible hand of order considered a very adequate explanation of how social organization could emerge out of free and unbridled competition among the individuals.” (1978:19). A comprehensive theory of government responsibility regarding systematic awareness in respect of the difficulties in the field of public administration was provided by a small group of highly educated British individuals out of the philosophical ideas of Jeremy Bentham. Mill was one among those individuals who saw eye to eye with the Benthamian idea that utility can not only be measured, but also meaningfully summed over people. Bentham argued for an artificial rather than a natural identity of interests. “He maintained”, Arnstein states, “that human beings, in following their own interests, promote the interests of their fellows only if the laws of their fellows are so arranged that their self-regarding actions will be channeled in the direction of the common good.” (1988:48). The principle of utilitarianism is one of the most significant works of J. S. Mill, which he has discussed in details in five chapters. In the first chapter, he describes the differences of opinions between philosophers while expressing their views about morality. The idea offers for the first code of morality and is based on the belief that makes distinction between right and wrong. "The utilitarian candidate", he views, "is the principle of utility, which holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure.” (1863:3). Mill vehemently stresses on the principle that every mans act must provide maximum pleasures for the others at large. He stands for the qualitative separation of happiness and considers moral and intellectual pleasure superior to physical pleasures. In addition, he makes a critical analysis of happiness and contentment, declaring the latter less significant and inferior one. Mill declares that mans sentiments, both favorable and unfavorable, are influenced by the principle of utility, which earns happiness for him. "The greatest happiness principle", according to him, "has had a large share in forming the moral doctrines even of those who even more scornfully reject its authority." (1863:8). In the second chapter, Mill pours his views in order to clarify the concept of utility about which, according to him, scholars and authors were at daggers drawn. Mill calls utility as the foundation of moral principle and doctrine of ethics, and interlinks the direction of action with the happiness and the opposite of it. "By happiness", he asserts, "is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure." (1863: 16). He criticizes the Epicurean perspective of happiness which states that life has no longer end than pleasure—no better and noble object of desire and pursuit—worthy only of a swine. Thus, happiness is something superior to pleasure in his doctrine, where it brings satisfaction and joy for others at its highest. Furthermore, Mill has divided pleasures into different categories including superior, higher, inferior and lower pleasures. He views mental and moral pleasures as the highest ones in rank, while physical and carnal pleasures as lower category. In addition, he keeps satisfaction in lower category of pleasure. He argues that sources of human pleasures must be higher than that of beasts. "If the sources of pleasures were precisely the same to human beings and to swine, the rule of life which is good enough for the one would be good enough to the other." (1863: 18). Bentham had not defined different terms of pleasures, and Mill looked one step forward to Bentham while elaborating the term in details. "This has led scholars", according to the Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "to wonder whether Mill’s utilitarianism differs significantly from Bentham’s and whether Mill’s distinction between higher and lower pleasures creates problems for our ability to know what will maximize aggregate happiness." (Quoted in John Stuart -- a_ Overview [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy].htm). In the same, there are different scales and levels of pleasures for different people. And majority of people does not care for the moral perspective of pleasure seeking. It is therefore, most of the pleasures are sought out of bodily satisfaction. "They pursue sensual indulgences", Mill opines, "to the injury of health, though perfectly aware that health is the greater good." (1863:24). Further, Mill looks for the motivation and the factors behind those all. He tries to describe peoples basic obligation towards the principle of utility. He seeks the forces which influence the people towards these principles. He tries to interconnect the moral demands as basic motive behind searching out the principle of utility. It is an innate wish of human being that he strives for the happiness and unity of his fellow beings, which he is unable to deny. Like other moral systems, the principle of utility also maintains external and internal sanctions. There are spiritual and religious motives too while seeking these principles. The love and fear of Almighty are the external sources of the utility. By this, Mill looks for the utilitarian conscience, which according to him, contains innate characteristics of feelings of happiness for general public and other people. Feelings of happiness for others are unconsciously significant for us. In Chapter 4 of his works on Utilitarianism, Mill discusses the susceptibility of proof in the principle of utility. As proof is required for reasoning and people prove the matters on the basis of visibility, audibility, and others. Taking utility, Mill means to say it is a desire, and proof for which is people long for it. People’s longing for happiness is the sound proof of its existence. He also describes virtue of people’s interest in it. Virtue is less desired in comparison to happiness and people desire virtue mere disinterestedly. “Virtue”, according to the utilitarian conception, is good of the description. There is no original desire of it, or motive to it, save its conduciveness to pleasure, and especially to protection from pain.” (1863: 62). Mill describes Justice in the final chapter of his famous work. Justice contains the highest place in the eyes of utilitarianists. “Mill begins by marking off morality (the realm of duties) from expediency and worthiness by arguing that duties are those things we think people ought to be punished for not fulfilling.” (Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Mill views that justice has been separated from all other areas of morality because there is a concept of reward and punishment affiliated with it. It not only gives pleasure on performing of virtue, but also awards negative pleasure to the wrong-doers as punishment. ON LIBERTY The main theme behind the famous work of J. S. Mill under the title “On Liberty” is collective and social liberty of thought and action. It is one of the greatest versions ever written on the subject of liberty. The treatise looks into the nature of the limitations imposed on individual by the forces of society. “The struggle between Liberty and Authority”, Mill submits, “is the most conspicuous feature in the portions of history with which we are earliest familiar, particularly in that of Greece, Rome and England.” (1859: 2). In the beginning of the book, he describes how cruel had been the governments of ancient times, who were always ready to perturb the wishes and views of the helpless subjects. He declares such rulers as the ‘flock of vultures’ sucking the blood of the people. Then he expresses his opinion over political governments, which are, according to him far better than those of tyrannical governments. Nevertheless, he condemns the tyranny of majority over minority in a democratic set up. Mill stands for the complete and unconditional civil liberty for each and every individual provided it can harm the other. It is Mill who first time introduced the ‘principle of harm’ in his works. An individual must be given full freedom of thought to exercise best of his qualities within a social structure so that it can provide maximum benefit on individual and collective basis. The society can only intervene if an action taken by an individual is harmful to the other members of society, but should make no interferences if these actions harm the individual himself. “Mill’s teleological notion of man as a progressive being runs strongly through his economic thinking, as well as his political writings. Despite his views of man as a scraping, selfish player in an impersonal and unforgiving marketplace, Mill ultimately champions capitalism for reasons informed and guided by the same perfectionist ideals he holds in the political realm.” (Chiu, 2005). Mill takes liberty in a vast sense, and does not see eye to eye with the notion that liberty stands for mere freedom from the tyranny of political government as it was considered in ancient times as well as medieval ages. Freedom of thought though is especially needed in a political set up, yet man must be free of unnecessary and unlimited social bindings too. The individuals should have been provided with enough freedom to celebrate their religious and cultural ceremonies as well as perform their religious and social obligations. He censures the interference of legislation and executive powers within a private conduct, which he thinks inappropriate. He laments on unavailability of any recognized principle to test the propriety of the interference of government into private affairs. “Despotism is”, he writes, “a legitimate mode of government in dealing with the barbarians, provided the end be their improvement, and the means justified by actually affecting that end.” (1859: 17). Mill is the torch-bearer of the liberty of speech and writing. He was the pioneer to demand the freedom of press. He states this freedom a tool to combat the tyranny of a government. He strictly condemns restrictions on journalism and compares silencing the expression of an opinion equal to robbing the human race. He declares it strange when people object to the validity of free discussion by stating it an attempt towards extremism. He laments that people themselves create obstacles on the way of liberty of different kinds. He submits the example of great Socrates, who stood as firm as rock for the freedom of thought and liberty of action. REFERENCES Arnstein, Walter L. (1988). British Yesterday and Today. 1830 to the Present. Fifth Edition. D.C. Heath & Company. Toronto Bentham, Jeremy. Deontology together with A Table of the Springs of Action and The Article on Utilitarianism. Edited by Amnon Goldworth. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. Chiu, Y. (2005, Apr) Perfectionism in J.S. Mills Economic Thought  Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Palmer House Hilton, Chicago, Illinois Online Retrieved 2006-10-05 from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p85712_index.html Homes, Peter. (2001). Philosopher of the Month. The Philosophers Magazine Online. January 2001 Edition. Mill, John Stuart. (1873). Autobiography. Thomas, Henry. & Thomas, Dana Lee. (1960). Great Philosophers. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. Turner, Jonathan H. (1978). The Structure of Sociological Theory. The Dorsey Press, Homewood, Illinois. Zaidi, M. H. (2004). Victorian Intellectuals, Authors and Philosophers. Moosa Publications, Urdu Bazaar Gujranwala. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John Stuart Mill http://www.philosophers.co.uk/cafe/phil_jan2001.htm Read More