Critical and Reflective Practice: Human Thought - Coursework Example

Critical and Reflective Practice: Human Thought 2007 Critical and Reflective Practice: Human Thought The explanation of human thought is one which is certainly not one-sided or narrow minded, as there are numerous different sorts of opinions and beliefs on this issue, and many different models which have been used to explain it as well. Different scholars and theorists over time have made their opinions vocal on this subject matter, and there are a few specific scholars and analysis models which are of particular importance and influence. Critical thinking is one issue that is included within the forum of human thought which is considered to be of particular importance as well, and again there are many different opinions and explanations that are put forth onto this matter as well. Critical thinking does, after all, manifest itself in the arts, humanities and sciences, and all of this is truly crucial to the subject of human thought overall. Reflective practice is a relative issue here, and there are basically two different dimensions to reflective practice, and two models in particular which are involved – the Johns’ model of reflective practice, and the Schon’s model of reflective practice. The aim of this paper is to discuss human thought in all of its complexity, in particular to address the matter of critical thinking and how it manifests itself in different areas of life. As well to be discussed here is the issue of reflective practice and the models that are most significant. By discussing all of this as well as any and all other key and related issues, we will be able to come to a much more informed and knowledgeable understanding on the subject of human thought as a whole, as well as on the matters of critical thinking and reflective practice and how these two subjects are related to the psychological aspect of human thought. This is what will be dissertated in the following. Human thought is a psychological issue which is incredibly complex, and to which many different subjects are contained within. In more recent years, a new discipline has arisen, which argues that human behavior can be understood in terms of evolutionary processes, and critical thinking is considered as being an incredibly intricate and significant part to human thought overall. In fact, critical thinking is something which is considered as having an on-going concern with the problems that are inherent in human thinking, and “It includes, but is not exhausted by the mental process of analyzing or evaluating information, particularly statements or propositions that people have offered as true. It includes, but is not limited to, a process of reflecting upon the meaning of statements, examining the offered evidence and reasoning, and forming judgments about the facts” (Wikipedia, 2007). The process of critical thinking, then, is one which involves acquiring information as well as evaluating it in order to reach a well-justified conclusion or answer. As well, a large part of critical thinking really goes above and beyond that of informal logic and includes a certain assessment of beliefs an identification of prejudice, bias, propaganda, self-deception, distortion, misinformation, and so on. It is considered that “Critical thinking is very important, as it allows purposes, questions, information, inferences, concepts, assumptions, implications, points of view, beliefs, and situations to be analyzed, evaluated and restructured, decreasing the risk of acting on a false premise. The loss of this faculty through injury, intoxication, denial, narrow-mindedness or subversion can lead to a greater risk of one making a fatal error” (Cartwright, 2003). There are basically two major aspects in particular which are involved within the area of critical thinking, and they are: a set of cognitive skills, intellectual standards, and traits of mind; and the ability and intellectual commitment to use those structures to improve thinking and guide behavior. It is incredibly important to realize the fact that critical thinking is based on concepts and principles, and that it does in fact have a strong purpose, as well as raises questions, accesses information, and embodies a point of view. However, it should also be known that “Nonetheless there is no pre-designed sequence of thought, or method, that can be said to apply across all domains of thought. There are, in other words, universal critical concepts, values, and principles, but not universal methods and procedures. Critical thinking is principle but not procedure based” (Wikipedia, 2007). There are various actual uses of critical thinking, and that includes the following: raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely; gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively; comes to well-reasoned conclusions and tests them against relevant criteria and standards; and thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences. The issue of critical thinking leads us then into behaviorism, which is a term that refers to a theory of animal and human learning which only focuses on objectivity observable behaviors and discounts mental activities, and so thus it is quite different in fact, when compared side by side to critical thinking. Experiments by behaviorists identity conditioning as being a universal learning process that is involved within the behaviorism subject area, and there are two different types of condition, each which yields a different behavioral pattern: “Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus…Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future” (Funderstanding, 2007). There have been many different criticisms of behaviorism, and that includes the following: behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of the mind; behaviorism does not explain some learning – such as the recognition of new language patterns by young children – for which there is no reinforcement mechanism; and as well, research has shown that animals adapt to their reinforced patterns to new information, and for instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered through reinforcements. Reflective practice is a theory which is associated with learning from experience and it is viewed as being an important strategy for health professionals who embrace life-long learning. As well, “The act of reflection is seen as a way of promoting the development of autonomous, qualified, and self-directed professionals. Engaging in reflective practice is associated with the improvement in the quality of care, stimulating personal and professional growth, and closing the gap between theory and practice” (Wipp, 2007). Furthermore, reflective practice is a term which is often used in education pedagogy, which was a concept that was introduced by Donald Schon, in the year 1987. It is one which is a continuous process from a personal perspective, and as defined by Schon, “reflective practice involves thoughtfully considering one’s own experiences in applying knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline. Un-structured approach directing understanding and learning, a self regulated process, commonly used in Health and Teaching professions, though applicable to all” (Paul & Elder, 2002). Donald Schon is the man behind Schon’s theory, and over the years of his life he worked by introducing several important organizing concepts to a wide range of applied fields, and this included that of the following: the idea of a ‘generative metaphor’, or in other words, figurative descriptions of social situations, usually which were implicit and even semi-conscious, but which at the same time shape the way and method in which problems are tackled; ‘learning systems’ – Schon was a pioneer of studies aimed at exploring the possibility of learning at the supra-individual level; reflective practice inquiry – Schon’s seminal 1983 book, The Reflective Practitioner, challenged practitioners across the world to reconsider the role of technical knowledge versus ‘artistry’ in developing professional excellence, and the concept involved here most notably affected the study of teacher education, health professions and architectural design; and finally, Frame Reflection – the title of a 1994 book which was co-authored with Schon’s MIT colleague Martin Rein, and which prescribed critical shared reconstruction of ‘frames’ of social problems which are otherwise taken for granted and advocated system level learning to find solutions for what is known as ‘intractable policy controversies’. (Wikipedia, 2007). He is a man who has made an incredibly remarkable contribution to our understanding of the theory and practice of learning, and his severely innovative thinking around notions such as the learning society and double-loop learning, for instance, have become a significant and crucial part of the language of education overall. Schon argues that social systems must learn to become capable of transforming themselves without intolerable disruption: “A learning system…must be one in which dynamic conservatism operates at such a level and in such a way as to permit change of state without intolerable threat to the essential functions the system fulfills for the self. Our systems need to maintain their identity, but they must at the same time be capable of transforming themselves” (Schon, 1973). Thus, Schon’s great innovation at this point was basically considered as being to explore the extent to which companies and governments were learning systems, as well as how those systems could be properly and efficiently enhanced. In one argument in particular, one which has found many echoes in the literature of the ‘learning organization’, Schon makes the case that many companies no longer have a stable base in the technologies of particular products or the systems built around them. As Schon states a firm is: … an internal learning system in which the system’s interactions…must now become a matter of directed transformation of the whole system. These directed transformations are in part the justification for the business systems firm. But they oblige it to internalize processes of information flow and sequential innovation which have traditionally been left to the ‘market’ and to the chain reactions within and across industry lines – reactions in which each firm had only to worry about its own response as one component. The business firm, representing the whole functional system, must now learn to effect the transformation and diffusion of the system as a whole. (Schon, 1973). Then there is another model in particular which is significant and influential in regards to reflective practice as well, and that is the Johns’ model. Johns’ model for structured reflection is one which can really be used as a guide for analysis of a critical incident or general reflection on experience, and thus it is thought that this would be useful for more complex decision making and “John supports the need for the learner to work with a supervisor throughout their learning experience. He refers to this as guided reflection, and recommends that students use a structured diary…as well…Johns considered that through sharing reflections on learning experiences greater understanding of those experiences could be achieved than by reflection as a lone experience” (Staff Central, 2007). Central to John’s idea of reflective practice, is that of the goal of accessing, understanding and learning through lived experience, and it is truly this which enables the practitioner to be able to take congruent action towards developing increased effectiveness within the context of what is understood a desirable practice. When describing the specific relationship between the four ways of knowing, Johns states that the “aesthetic emerges as the dominant sphere and is informed by the empirical, personal and ethical dimensions. In this way, the aesthetic mediates the other areas of knowledge. The result is a synthesis that enables the practitioner to respond to new situations with a changed perspective” (Grech, 2004). Overall, Johns’ model offers a robust guide for reflective practice, as it enables the practitioner to analyze an experience by promoting the cognition of the contradictory parts that come together in order to make up that experience, and it is also considered that “Over time, this process enables the practitioner to avoid the assumptions that might otherwise be made if based on a purely empirical understanding of reality” (Grech, 2004). When it comes to the matter of critical thinking versus reflective practice in general, let alone in health care, we can see that there are many similarities and differences. Each has their own benefits that they bring to the issue, and thus each is effective in their own regards. While critical thinking is obviously one of the most important aspects of all in a field such as health care, reflective practice is also very crucial. However overall when we need to determine which is actually more effective, we can see that it is critical thinking. This is largely due to the fact of how it is considered as being necessary in order for structure to be present in the field, and so therefore it is absolutely essential overall. However it is also important to note here how critical thinking manifests itself in reflective practice, as theorists have found that skill in critical thinking is positively correlated with the consistent internal motivation to think, and moreover, that specific and certain critical thinking skills are matched with specific critical thinking dispositions. In fact, the general consensus is that critical thinking is judging in a reflective way what to do or what to believe, and that the cognitive skills of analysis, interpretation, inference, explanation, evaluation, and of monitoring and correcting one’s own reasoning are really and truly the heart of critical thinking. “Through practice, and with guidance from a good instructor, we can develop our thinking skills (like our artistic, athletic, or leadership skills) to the extent our natural abilities allow. But we should take care not to confuse the component skills with the activity itself” (Kitchen 1999). It is considered that “The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit” (Lyotard, 1989). We can trace western science and philosophy to the ancient Greeks who created a culture that was based on the commercial and civic utility of using reason to solve problems and make decisions. For them the intellectual virtues were as important as the civic and physical virtues. Although much of the educational and corporate rhetoric today is fueled by a pervasive and uncritical faith in high technology as an educational and economic panacea, wiser voices still whisper that information and skills alone cannot guarantee success in the workplace or in school. People must also be disposed to use what they have learned. Educational and professional success require developing one’s thinking skills and nurturing one’s consistent internal motivation to use those skills. To imagine a powerful positive automatic correlation between CT skills and CT dispositions actually undermines the task at hand. If we want our students to be both willing and able to engage in CT, and we do, then we have to include both in school and professional development curricula, in our instructional assignments, and in our educational outcomes and assessments. Why? Because being skilled does not assure one is dispose to use CT. And, being disposed toward CT does not assure that one is skilled. Overall from this review there are many different things that we can conclude, several of particular importance, and one specific point would be that critical thinking and reflective practice are both issues which are incredibly essential and significant in regards to many different forums of life, and in particular in the subject field of human thought. We have seen about the different ways in which critical thinking manifests itself in the art, humanity, and science fields, and how the different dimensions of reflective practice have provoked incredible and significant results across the world. This overall subject matter that has been discussed here is one of great intricacy and complexity, one which has been discussed numerous times in the past but which has never truly had concrete or entirely justifiable opinions considered or overtly stated upon it. We have also been able to make note of the various different problematic situations and areas which are present, and to these there are certainly solutions which can be put forth, however in order to do so there has to be a much more serious and intellectual stance taken on this addressed subject matter overall. For only then will the proper and most relatable and efficient solutions be able to be brought to the table. References Cartwright, J (2003). Evolutionary Explanations of Human Behavior. New York: Routledge. Elder, L. & Paul, R (2004). The Miniature Guide to the Human Mind. Dillon Beach: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. Funderstanding (2007). Behaviorism, online article retrieved April 26, 2007, from http://www.funderstanding.com/behaviorism.cfm Gibbs, G (1988). Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods. Oxford: Oxford Polytechnic. Grech, E (2004). ‘Hegel’s Dialectic and Reflective Practice – A Short Essay’. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 8: 71-73. Johns, C (2000). Becoming a Reflective Practitioner: A Reflective & Holistic Approach to Clinical Nursing, Practice Development & Clinical Supervision. Oxford: Blackwell Science. Kitchen, S (1999). ‘An Appraisal of Models of Reflection and Clinical Supervision’. British Journal of Theatre Nursing, 9 (7): 313-317. Louch, A. R (1968). ‘Explanation and Human Action’. The Journal of Philosophy, 65 (3): 81-84. Lower, W (1982). Dichotomies of the Mind: A Systematic Explanation of Human Behavior. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Lyotard, J. F (1989). Defining the Postmodern. London: Free Association Books. Paul, R. & Elder, L (2002). Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Professional and Personal Life. London: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D. & Jasper, M (2001). Critical Reflection in Nursing and the Helping Professions: A User’s Guide. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Schon, D. A (1963). The Displacement of Concepts. London: Tavistock. Schon, D. A (1973). Beyond the Stable State. Hammondsworth: Penguin/ New York: Norton. Schon, D. A (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. London: Temple Smith. Schon, D. A (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schon, D. A (1991). The Reflective Turn: Case Studies in and on Educational Practice. New York: Teachers College. Schon, D. A. & Rein, M (1994). Frame Reflection: Toward the Resolution of Intractable Policy Controversies. New York: Basic Books. Staff Central (2007). Learning Unit: Reflective Practice, online article retrieved April 26, 2007, from http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:1Cgd6tPGQNEJ:staffcentral.brighton.ac.uk/clt/events/documents/Ramage%2520Example%25203.doc+reflective+practice+models+johns&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=3 Usher, R. et al (1997). Adult Education and the Postmodern Challenge. London: Routledge. Wikipedia (2007). Reflective Practice, online article retrieved April 26, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflective_practice Wipp (2007). Example of a Reflective Practice Tool, online article retrieved April 26, 2007, from http://www.wipp.nhs.uk/tools_gpn/toolu4_eg_reflective.php Read More