What Is an Argument - Essay Example

Number] Short Question Answers What is an argument? An argument is generally a set of reasons orevidences presented in an attempt to change the opinion of someone regarding an action, event or idea. 2. What is the difference between an argument and an explanation? An argument is basically constructed in opposition to a certain topic or subject to prove that the opinion of someone else’s is wrong. On the other hand, an explanation is a simple interpretation of the topic under discussion, usually given to make the listener understand the discussed topic instead of persuading him/her to his/her mind about it. 3. What is the difference between validity and truth? Truth is actually the ‘true’ facts that remain unchanged under all circumstances. In contrast, validity is based on the result of arguments. Anything that can be reasoned is valid. Validity can change over time with the introduction of different opinions and reasoning. Even invalid arguments can conclude something that is technically valid. 4. What is the difference between a sound argument and a valid argument? If stated simply, all sound arguments are also valid arguments but not all the valid ones are sound. A sound argument comprises of reasons that are all valid and have true premises. However, a valid argument is simply a deductive analysis and may sometimes be based on invalid reasoning. 5. What are three typical steps in philosophical reasoning/investigation? Explain the three main traditional areas (i.e., questions) of philosophy. The three main areas of philosophy are Metaphysics, Epistemology and ethics. 6. Why does John Wisdom argue that science and religion are radically different approaches to the study of the universe? John Wisdom believes the religion is more of a feeling related to the working of the universe while science is an explanation. He says that explanations can never be on the basis of what someone feels. Thus, he calls the two of them different. 7. Why does Albert Einstein argue that religion and science can work together? In contrast, Einstein believes the science and religion are interlinked and the religious attitude is the best motivation for people to carry on with the scientific research. That is why the best philosophers are the ones who understand the religion before they turn towards the field of science. Thus, he is of the opinion that the two can work together very well. 8. Explain the three traditional (kinds of) arguments that theists have given to demonstrate the existence of God. There are three different kinds of arguments present. The first is the theism that says that there are enough evidences present around us to believe in existence of the gods. Secondly, there is atheism which says that there are countless evidences present for believing in the non-existence of god. Lastly, there is agnosticism which suggests that the evidences present are insufficient to support neither theism nor atheism. 9. Explain Anselms version of the ontological argument for the existence of God. Anselm argues that he understands God to be a supreme being and that there is no possible force greater than God’s in this universe. However, he says that if the existence of God was only in the mind, then any being found in reality is surely to have greater power over the God who is only a figment of imagination. However, if we believe that there can be God is the greatest being then we must also believe that it exists as well. 10. Explain Gaunilos objection to Anselms ontological argument for the existence of God. He objects that if Anselm’s argument is to be considered and accepted, then all other sound arguments of other philosophers should also be accepted. He argues that many of us humans are unable to conceive the image of the God which would then mean that he does not exist or that he exists for some or and not for all. In such a situation, the ontological argument fails to work. 11. Explain Kants objection to any version of the ontological argument for the existence of God. Kant has severely objected the intelligibility of Anselm’s ontological argument. He says that the presence of the all the necessary propositions still do not prove the existence of God. He simplifies the point he is trying to explain by using triangle as an example. A triangle must have three sides but that does not make it compulsory for the triangle to exist. Same goes for God. 12. Explain the cosmological argument (especially Aquinas version of it). The cosmological argument is a form of inductive reasoning that has been derived on basis of experience. Aquinas’ version says that the God’s presence can explained through the relationship of cause and effect. Nothing can exist on its own. There needs to be a cause of their existence. The only uncaused thing that exists is the God himself. 13. Explain the different types of causality expounded by Aristotle (including the significance of "efficient causality" for the cosmological argument for the existence of God). The different types of causalities proposed by Aristotle are: Material Cause: from which the thing is made. Formal Cause: the form it is to take Efficient Cause: the source of disturbance or change Final Cause: for which the thing exists The efficient cause is thus significant as it supports the cosmological argument of cause and effect and suggests that every existing thing needs something to control it and bring about the changes that are seen in the world; thus, God is present for the efficient cause of this universe. 14. Explain Paleys argument for the existence of God from design. Paley’s argument is a form of teleological argument which suggests that the appearance of the design of the universe gives the strongest evidence for the presence of God. He says that the artifacts we human create are designs of our intelligence and have purpose. But the universe is vast and more complex than the human artifacts. So its creator would have the greatest degree of intelligence which would surely be the God. 15. Explain Aquinas version of the teleological argument (i.e., his "Fifth Way"). The Aquinas’ version says that everything in this world has a specific arrangement or order and that it works in a manner that allows it to achieve an end. The order is so complex that it is impossible to explain it by chance; it can only be done by design. He says that design is dependent on intelligence so the fate of the universe depends upon Divine Intelligence that is, of the God. 16. Why does Hume think that the argument from design is not a sound argument for the existence of God? Hume does not agree with the design theory because he thinks that there is more disorder than order in the universe e.g. earthquakes, volcanoes, black holes, etc. Moreover, it does not prove that the creator of all this is immortal or infinite. Neither does it prove the existence of a single god. He claims that as there is no other universe or ‘design’ to compare with, the analogy of the theory turns out to be a failure. 17. Explain the contemporary version of the teleological argument---i.e., the "fine-tuning" argument. Fine – tuning can be defined as the balance of nature. In this argument, it is said that everything in the universe is held steady at a razor’s edge. Even the slightest disruption can upset the balance and cause massive chaos. This balance or fine – tuning is due to design, and thus signifies the existence of god. 18. Explain Ockhams razor and the role that it can play in the debate between the contrasting explanations and hypotheses. Note, if possible, problems that may face this principle. It is the last of parsimony also called the principle that makes assumptions between competing hypotheses. 19. Explain the debate between the contrasting hypotheses of evolution vs. creation (or intelligent design). Most scientists believe in the process of evolution through which the species arose gradually over time according to the need and the conditions of the era. In contrast the religious philosophers favor the theory of intelligent design or creationism and believe that a supernatural power possible the God’s created everything the way it exists today. The debate arises because creationism proves many of the scientific records and findings wrong. Moreover, the scientists fail to understand the nature of the ‘supernatural’ power at work in creationism. 20. Explain Kants argument for God and immortality of the soul from morality. Kant argues that the belief of existence should be enough to accept the existence of God. By doing so, he opposes the ontological theories. Moreover, the moral argument by Kant stresses upon a person’s relationship between living a virtuous life and his self – satisfaction. The highest level of morality is achieved when the person balances the moral agents and his desires perfectly. 21. Why does Pascal think that we should believe that God exists? Pascal thinks that the probability of the God existing and non – existing is divided equally. He says that if we belief in God and He actually exists, we will be rewarded undoubtedly. However, if he does not then at least we would have kept ourselves away from acts that are morally wrong. In either case, we have nothing to lose. However, if we do not believe in God and e actually exists, we will then be bound to suffer some serious punishment. 22. Explain at least objections to Pascals "Wager" argument. The objections made to Pascal’s Wager argument are basically based on the fact that it assumes a similar decision matrix for everyone while this should not be the case because there may be a possibility of different people getting different rewards. While they are some who object that it is very unlikely that the reward offered can remain infinite, they are also others who want a greater variety of rewards. 23. Explain what William James mean when he claims that religious belief can be a "genuine" option? By calling religion a genuine option, James means that it is living, unavoidable and unique. He calls it living in the sense that religion has always been open to possibilities for both a believer and a non – believer. Then comes unavoidability; it means that one has either to accept the religious principles or let go of them. There is certainly no mid way. And of course, it is something unique and momentous. 24. Why does Kierkegaard claim that absurdity or paradox is the essence of faith? It is because when we accept the faith in God, we are doing this by leaving behind all types of rational thinking and letting ourselves endangered of being deceived. Accepting religion without any objections and giving up the ‘common sense’ is most definitely an absurd idea but that is what makes the strongest of the faiths. 25. Why does the presence of real evil seem to be a problem for the traditional belief that God exists? The presence of evil makes it difficult to accept the belief of the presence of God. It is because it makes it very difficult to understand the fact that if there is an omnipotent God present, then why is there suffering and pain in the world? Why does not He just make everything go away with His powers and let His justice and goodness prevail? 26. What are the three main ways that the traditional problem of evil can be answered? Denying the existence of evil Believing in free will, karma or after life Denying the omnipotence of God 27. What is a "theodicy"? It is a branch of theology and its role is to defend the justice and goodness of God from the accusations made on the basis of the existence of evil. Theodicy helps make peace with those who question the inconsistency of God’s presence. 28. Explain three standard theodicies that some philosophers have given as solutions to the problem of evil. Augustinian Theodicy: it argues that God is a purely good being and He should not be blamed for the existence of evil. The evil is actually the doing of the humans themselves who have been blessed with free will. Irenaean Theodicy: this one argues that the evil was created by God Himself with an aim of the soul – making of the people and the sufferings that we have to face help us grow perfect from a state of imperfection. Protest Theodicy: it denies the idea of God being wholly just and good in order to explain the presence of evil. God Himself has created suffering for those who disobey Him similar to the fact that he created rewards for those who obey Him. 29. Explain Augustines argument that evil is not a self-existing thing. Augustine’s explains his idea of evil being not being a self – existing thing by taking the example of light and shadow. The good is the light while the shadow is evil. He says that like a shadow cannot be formed without light, evil can be present with the good. Good is then technically the source of evil according to Augustine. Read More