Philosophy Question List - Assignment Example

number] What is the Harm-to-Others Principle by Mill? Mill’s Harm-to-Others principle poses the idea that members of a society have the obligation not to harm other members of this society, and in return may enjoy the same protection: “Everyone who receives the protection of society owes a return for the benefit…each should be bound to observe a certain line of conduct towards the rest. This conduct consists, first in not injuring the interests of one another” (Mill 208) this idea extends to society’s responsibility to prevent harm to those who are unable to care for themselves, including minors and the incapacitated. Furthermore, it is immoral for a society to condemn behavior in individuals that does not harm society or other individuals. 2. Find differences between individuality and the uniform type of personality. What conditions are necessary to develop individuality? Individuality depends on freedom, particularly of expression. (Mill 193) Mill also promotes eccentricity in one’s habits and states that in doing so, one will create his life to suit himself and thus promote eccentric, but useful, habits to gain status as customs of society. Uniform types of personality, he says, are the result of constriction of this natural form of self-expression and result in stifled ways of thinking. 3. What is the relationship between individuality, diversity, originality, development, and freedom? Mill states that “The power of compelling others….is not only inconsistent with the freedom and development of all the rest, but corrupting to the strong man himself.” (Mill 202). In other words, personal freedom and a disinclination to impose one’s will on others develops originality and individuality. 4. How does Mill define liberty? How does he perceive human happiness? Mill closely defines human happiness as “”Pleasure and the absence of pain,” (Mill 99) and is in the essence of his definition of what Utilitarianism is; the pursuit of happiness by mankind as a whole. He states, “Human beings have faculties more elevated than the animal appetites.” (Mill 100) and that because of these “higher faculties” humans find pleasure—and thus, happiness—in the fine arts, especially. Liberty is in the freedom to choose what manner of lifestyle will promote this happiness in the individual, ideally promoting happiness in others, at the same time, but not necessarily. The only form of personal liberty he finds unacceptable is that which infringes on another’s liberty. 5. What is virtue by Mill? What is the function of reason and emotions in moral life? Virtue, according to Mill, is that which provides the maximum happiness for mankind. Actions which are undertaken unselfishly to promote happiness among mankind as a whole are virtuous; the same action undertaken with the opposite intention would not be a virtue. Self-denial and sacrifice are not virtuous acts in themselves. (Mill 107) “Self-regarding” virtues are behaviors or ideas that promote pleasure to the self, and are no less virtuous than those behaviors that bring pleasure to others. Reason and emotions are tools mankind possesses to determine that which is pleasurable and not painful, and to determine the best way to keep pain to a minimum and pleasure to a maximum. 6. What is liberalism and authoritarianism? What tradition does Mill represent? Authoritarianism favors a strong governing force over the lives of individuals, whereas liberalism favors less of an involvement. Mill is decidedly a liberal, and even mistrusts the authority of the majority: “Neither one person, nor any number of persons, is warranted in saying to another human creature of ripe years that he shall not do with his life for his own benefit what he chooses to do with it.” (Mill 209) 7. What forms of tyranny does Mill see in our life? Mill objects to laws and punishments meted out by society to actions or practices which are not directly detrimental to others. He therefore finds it tyrannical to pass laws and punish men for things like drinking or drugs, and other activities which may not be desirable, but which cause harm only to the perpetrator. “Purely self-regarding misconduct cannot properly be meddled with in the way of prevention or punishment.” (Mill 227) He also objects to the “tyranny of the majority” (Mill 153) where the “people” governing a state impose their will on the entirety of that state. 8. What power does authority have upon the individual? Authority has no right over the individual except in prevention of his causing pain to other individuals; therefore, the state can punish a murderer or rapist but not a drunkard, unless the drunkard causes destruction to others because of his habit. (Mill 227) 9. What is Mill’s idea of democracy? Mill mistrusts democracy in that he feels that it promotes tyranny of the majority. Furthermore, he expresses doubts (Mill 202) that the “people” are necessarily more than a specific, though large, chunk of the population in any given country- e.g. white males, or the middle class. He calls this condition, “The government of mediocrity,” (Mill 202) 10. Name main theses of ethics by de Beauvoir and her definition of existentialism. Simone de Beauvoir defines existentialism, the idea that there is no autocratic, external morality in the world, as requiring man to act in the world, rather than being an excuse for inaction and apathy. Her idea of existentialism as essentially meaning freedom results in her statement: “Freedom realizes itself only by engaging itself in the world: to such an extent that man’s project toward freedom is embodied for him in definite acts of behavior” (de Beauvoir 78) 11 Explain terms: ethics of ambiguity, aesthetic attitude, existence precedes essence, and engaged freedom. De Beauvoir’s concept of ambiguity is rooted in the paradox that man is, among all other creatures, an autonomous being. However, among other men, one person’s autonomy and significance is necessarily limited. The ethics of ambiguity is the necessary response to a complicated situation in which there are no absolutes, and indeed, opposing ideas can and do exist simultaneously. There are no moral absolutes. “Aesthetic attitude” is defined as the view that “No solution is better or worse than any other” (de Beauvoir 74) and observing life dispassionately. 12. Explain the statement: “man is a lack of being.” What is the “uprooting” of man? “Being” is “Escaping from the stresses of existence” (de Beauvoir 46) or a sense of isolation from the world. Man, in himself, is a “lack of being” or a sense of connectedness. Uprooting him from this connectedness causes him to become a “being”. 13. Name terms: “being-in-itself”, and “being-for-itself.” A “being-in-itself” is one who has rejected his connection to the world. A being-for-itself is one who has decided that the rest of the world doesn’t matter. (de Beauvoir 78) Being is a separate existence. 14. List several definitions of freedom de Beauvoir proposes. Lying to ones’ self (the “serious” man) is the opposite of freedom, as is nihilism. Rejecting both of these principles results in freedom. One must accept that freedom is in a constant state of tension and there are no “resolutions” (de Beauvoir 48) 15. What is the existential relation between present and future? “The future is the definite direction of a particular transcendence and it is so closely bound up with the present that it composes with it a single temporal form” (de Beauvoir 116) In other words, as the future is constantly turning into the present, they are existentially one and the same. 16. Why does de Beauvoir criticize the “aesthetic attitude”? Because of de Beuvoir’s maxim of engagement with the world, the detached and disaffected approach of an aesthetic attitude, which treats all situations as equal and promotes non-engagement, goes directly against her ideas of individual freedom and action. 17. Describe three forms of freedom denial? What is dangerous about nihilism? De Beauvoir lists several methods of freedom denial, or oppression. First, “Mystification”, which is the practice of obscuring meaning from human action. For example, folk traditions, which assert humanity among people who are usually downtrodden, lose the meaning of this assertion when prepackaged for tourism. (de Beauvoir 94) Oppressors also rely on tradition or the expression of utility to justify revoking freedom. For example, as de Beauvoir mentions, justifying colonialism and exploitation of resources that indigenous populations were “wasting”. (de Beauvoir 95) The danger in nihilism is that it is futile; attempting to destroy or devalue everything in the world is a paradox, as nihilism is a thing itself. Furthermore, the urgency of destruction without reason is dangerous. 18. How would you define nihilism using your own words? Nihilism is similar to the “aesthetic attitude” in that it treats all situations as equal; however, a nihilistic worldview treats all aspects of the world as completely lacking in value. 19. Why is the serious man dangerous? Why is the nihilist dangerous? Is it possible to have “pure nihilism”? What is the paradox of nihilism, according to de Beauvoir? The paradox of nihilism is that nihilism is a thing; therefore, “pure nihilism” is impossible, because in destroying nihilism one destroys the destroyer. The nihilist is dangerous in that he lacks this distinction. Serious men are dangerous because they are inherently dishonest. “The serious man’s dishonesty issues from his being obliged ceaselessly to renew the denial of this freedom.”(de Beauvoir 47) and is thus living forever in a paradox where he must rearrange his mental outlook constantly to maintain his illusions. In a sense, a serious man is a nihilist of the self. 20. Reconstruct main ideas of satyagraha and swaraj by Gandhi. Swaraj is a Hindu term meaning “Freedom” Gandhi melded the religious meaning of swaraj as internal freedom from illusion with the ideal of free Indian nationalism. Satyagraha means “power” or “force” and is the means of attaining Swaraj—through the power of love and peaceful resistance, rather than violence. (Gandhi 161) 21. What religious and philosophical influences are visible in Gandhi’s theory of non-violence? What is Bhagavad-Gita? As a Hindu, Gandhi drew directly on religious practices, including vegetarianism, returning to a traditional Indian lifestyle and rejecting symbols of British rule such as the clothing and food of Great Britain. The Bhagavad-Gita is an ancient Hindu religious text in the form of an epic poem. The main tenant of this text is that an individual is bound to perform his actions (according to his position in life- warrior, etc.) and yet has no claim to the results of his actions. Gandhi equated this idea to the ideal of democratic rule. 33. Explain the following statement: “duties create rights.” What is Gandhi’s idea of democracy? Why does he criticize the Western democracy? Gandhi defines democracy as the mobilization of the people for the greater good (Gandhi 144). He integrates democracy with Indian principles of self-discipline and restraint. Similar to the message of the Baghavad Gita, which states that the individual has the right to his duty but not the results, Gandhi states: “Rights accrue automatically to him who duly performs his duties. In fact the right to perform one’s duties is the only right that is worth living for and dying for.” (Gandhi 145) In his opinion, Western democracy has the equation backwards, and considers that rights create duties. Furthermore, Gandhi feels that the ends never justify the means, and therefore a democracy built on coercion, violence, or untruth is not a whole democracy. Works Cited Beauvoir, Simone De. Ethics of Ambiguity. Grand Rapids: Kensington Corporation, 2000. Bentham, Jeremy, John Stuart Mill, and John Troyer. The Classical Utilitarians : Bentham and Mill. Boston: Hackett Company, Incorporated, 2003. Gandhi, Mahatma. Gandhi: Selected Political Writings. New York, NY: Hackett, 1996. Read More