In what ways can marginalized perspectives enrich mainstream psychology - Essay Example

Running Head: In what ways can marginalized perspectives enrich mainstream psychology In what ways can marginalized perspectives enrich mainstream psychology Authors Name Institution Name Mainstream psychology focuses on helping gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, and black & other ethnic minorities to cope adaptively with the impact of stigma, and difference from the attitudes and behavior of majority group mainstream. This wave assisted gay men, lesbians, bisexuals gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, and black & other ethnic minorities in understanding and accepting their marginalized perspectives as a natural part of themselves, helped them to develop strategies for coping and forming a positive sense of identity, and taught them the effect of negative social attitudes, prejudice, discrimination, and heterosexism on psychological functioning (Backer, T. E., W. F. Batchelor, J. M. Jones, and V. M. Mays. 1988). A minority stress model is used to understand psychological well-being among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Specifically, this model posits that lesbians, gay men, bisexuals and ethnic minorities may be at increased risk for mental distress because of exposure to stressors related to social antigay attitudes. There has also been increased attention to understanding psychological resilience and the ways in which lesbians, gay men, and ethnic minorities successfully cope with stress and stigma. In addition, assertiveness as a positive psychological process is demonstrated by different aspects of coming out as a lesbian, gay man, or bisexual: identity commitment, identity disclosure, and community involvement. Edward Sampson (1993) argues that the dissatisfaction expressed by minority groups about mainstream psychology can be explained in relation to the notion of identity politics. He defines identity politics as: "a politics based on the particular life experiences of people who seek to be in control of their own identities and subjectivities and who claim that socially dominant groups have denied them this opportunity" (p. 1219). The ideology of identity politics may be admirable (or not), the reality is that, as often happens with ideology; the political movement has lost touch with the analytic meaning of its key concept. Just what is an identity The analytic potential needs to be extricated from ideologies of identity (Gainor, K. A. 2000). While the reduction of identity to power has its pitfalls, so too does an essentialist position. To argue that identity is race, or is sex, is to engage in a curious political maneuver. If identity is determined by an unchangeable characteristic of the self, then we have the basis for arguments of separatism. If I am my race or my gender, then all those who do not share my essential characteristic are alien and separate. It becomes very difficult to confront racism and sexism on any terms other than force or numbers. It is to argue that identity precedes existence. Current struggles over "difference feminism" reflect a great ambivalence over the political implications of this kind of argument. To juxtapose the essentialist argument to the thesis that identity is socially constructed through customs and conditioning is to be confronted with a contradiction. It is obvious that aspects of gender roles and racial stereotypes are socially constructed for reasons having to do with power, among other considerations. The implication of this proposition is that these roles and stereotypes can be deconstructed, as surely they can. But the question remains: what is left of identity when deconstruction has taken place Is there some primordial human essence Or is each individual, thus released from social constraint, free to assert whatever identity seems appealing If this is so, we are back to the self-centered individualism of classical liberal political theory. While images of autonomy and self-sufficiency have great appeal, they do not fit with what we know about the social interdependence that characterizes human nature. Thus, Greater attention has been placed on ensuring that gay, lesbian, bisexual, ethnic minorities' affirmative concepts are more fully integrated into current personality theories and therapeutic approaches. Education, training, ethical and professional guidelines, and research are used to reduce bias in theories and practice. The promotion and dissemination of empirical testing of marginalized group affirmative modes and theories has been emphasized. Finally, this has also seen a shifting away from viewing sexual orientation from within a heterosexually or majority groups dominated psychology. The result has been a defining of norms and terms based on marginalized group realities. This has led to an examination of the ways that marginalized group paradigms help to inform and reconceptualize broader psychological issues of sexuality, gender roles, identity, intimacy, family relationships, and life span development. Psychological research has likewise shifted from removing the stigma of pathology from lesbians, gay men, bisexuals and ethnic minorities to examining issues of implicit concern to them. Five major themes have emerged: 1. Research on mental health has documented that gay men, lesbians, bisexuals and ethnic minorities, as individuals, couples, and a social community, do not show lower levels of adjustment than heterosexuals or majority groups. Moreover, research has focused on the nature and impact of negative social attitudes toward lesbians, gay men, bisexuals and ethnic minorities and has documented the pervasive effects of heterosexist bias and sexual prejudice within American society. 2. Research has shifted from viewing homosexuals as a group with definite characteristics to recognition of the diversity that exists among lesbians and gay men. This view has led to an increased awareness of the similarity between heterosexuals and homosexuals, on the one hand, and, on the other, has called attention to the effects of gender, ethnicity, race, age, socioeconomic status, geographic locale, and lifestyle on salient characteristics of gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals. 3. Theoretical perspectives on homosexuality have shifted from attention to an illness model that emphasized origins and treatment to an affirmative model that examines how gay men and lesbians form and maintain their identity and manage ordinary problems of life span development. 4. The view that sexual orientation is an inherent characteristic of an individual has been broadened to include the role of social and historical influences in shaping the meaning and expression of homosexuality. 5. The relationship between gender roles and sexual orientation has received great attention. Research has indicated that gender is a central organizing factor for heterosexuals, lesbians, and gay men in personal experiences, values, and relationship styles. (J. Goodchilds, ed., 1999) Andersen (1994) writes: "Minority group members have insights about and interpretations of their experiences that are likely different from those generated by white scholars. The question is not whether white scholars should write about or attempt to know the experience of people of color, but whether their interpretations should be taken to be the most authoritative" (p. 43). Standpoint science is not only about engaging with experiences of marginalized people, it also involves the research itself carried out by marginalized people with marginalized people. Once again, this argument underscores the point that research occurs within a discursive context of power relationships which are likely to be reproduced in the process and outcome of the research enterprise. This point is aptly made by Blauner and Wellman (1973): There are certain aspects of racial phenomena, however, that are particularly difficult, if not impossible, for a member of the oppressing group to grasp empirically and formulate conceptually. These barriers are existential and methodological as well as political and ethical. We refer here to the nuances of culture and group ethos; to the meaning of oppression and especially psychic relations; to what is called the Black, Mexican-American, the Asian and the Indian experience (p. 329). Thus, new ways of conceptualizing marginalized perspectives orientation and new empirical findings have had important implications for public policy in the arena of mainstream psychology. Organized psychology has had an important role in making possible a public discourse which assumes that gay and bisexual people are normal and healthy and should therefore be treated equally and with respect. The APA has influenced public policy by participating with other professional organizations in a research and demonstration project on healthy, lesbian, gay, bisexuals and ethnic minorities; by disseminating social science research that demonstrates that same-gender sexual orientation is not pathological; and by educating other professionals and the public about the reality of gay, lesbian, bisexuals and ethnic minorities lives (American Psychological Association (APA) Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concerns. 1990). Finally, the importance of understanding marginalized perspectives for minorities has become apparent. Social policy, legislative deliberations, and judicial decisions have increasingly recognized the legitimacy of gay male, lesbian, bisexual and minorities' issues, often encouraged by psychological research and perspectives. Moreover, all people can benefit from acknowledging the restrictive constraint of heterosexist bias that limits behavior to rigid gender roles, requires 100 percent heterosexuality, and defines one's value as a man or a woman by one's rejection of homosexuality (Baumeister, R. F. 2000). In particular, lesbians, gay men, bisexuals and ethnic minorities can continue to make a contribution to a greater appreciation of human diversity and the benefits that result from examining predetermined constraints that limit the fulfillment of one's unique potential. Reference: Baumeister, R. F. 2000. Gender differences in erotic plasticity: The female sex drive as socially flexible and responsive. Psychological Bulletin 126:347-74. Gainor, K. A. 2000. Including transgender issues in lesbian, gay, and bisexual psychology: Implications for practice and training. In B. Greene and G. L. Croom, eds., Education, Research, and Practice in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgendered Psychology, pp. 131-60. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. American Psychological Association (APA) Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concerns. 1990. Final Report of the Task Force on Bias in Psychotherapy with Lesbians and Gay Men. Washington, D.C.: Author. Backer, T. E., W. F. Batchelor, J. M. Jones, and V. M. Mays. 1988. Introduction to the special issue: Psychology and AIDS. American Psychologist 43:835-36. J. Goodchilds, ed., Psychological Perspectives on Human Diversity in America, pp. 137, 1999. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Read More