The Metaphysics - Essay Example

Philosophy Question One Metaphysics is a subdivision of philosophy mainly concerned with studying the fundamental constitution and structure of reality (Loux 9). The term literally implies that which comes after physics and refers to Aristotle’s dissertations. Metaphysics also investigates the core groupings of things such as the physical and the mental, and the examination of reality in contrast to appearance. It studies the world as a whole basing on a presumption of first principles. Determinism states that there are conditions for any particular occurrence and, in the absence of such conditions, that particular occurrence cannot come to be. This means that laws of nature work with other events to act as forerunners that necessitate every occurrence. Soft determinism, also known as compatibilism, is the conviction that the ideas of determinism and free will are compatible (Loux 38). Therefore, one can believe in determinism and free will and still be logically consistent. Here, according to American philosopher William James, free will is the liberty to act according to one’s motivation. However, he also points out that an individual can do their will but cannot control what they will to do. On the other hand, hard determinism, also known as metaphysical determinism, agrees that determinism is true but not compatible to free will. Therefore, free will, according to hard determinism, is non-existent. Hard determinism positions itself relative to other determinism forms in which the future is necessitated in its entirety. Question Two Epistemology, also termed as the theory of knowledge, is a subdivision of philosophy that deals with the scope and nature of knowledge (Nelson 1). Epistemology examines the theory of the limits, nature and origin of knowledge by focusing on its meaning, acquisition and the degree to which an entity can possibly be known. Epistemology discusses three kinds of knowledge, which are “knowledge by acquaintance”, “knowledge how” and “knowledge that”. For example, it is mathematically “known that” 1+1=2, and people also “know how” to calculate sums. Then, there is the aspect of knowing an activity, a thing, a place or a person (Boyle 86). The disagreement between empiricism and rationalism is concerned with the extent to which people are dependent on sense experience in their effort to acquire knowledge. While empiricists opine that the definitive source of all knowledge and concepts is sense experience, rationalists hold that significant ways exist in which knowledge and concepts are acquired independently of sense experience (Duncan 611). In rationalism, the most significant knowledge draws from using reason. This, therefore, means that rationalism verifies a priori, or “prior knowledge” as most significant kind of knowledge. Both Spinoza and Descartes associated using reason with mathematics. They both believed in seeking metaphysical truths whose reliability can be likened to mathematics. There is a metaphysical tendency in rationalists, since they portray notions like essence and substance. Rationalism also agrees with theology, which can be seen in Spinoza’s and Descartes’ thought that the existence of God can rationally be demonstrated (Boyle 114). Empiricism, which is hostile to religion and metaphysics, aligns itself with natural sciences. Empiricism, therefore, believes that knowledge stems from experience, and any notion not based on experience is questionable. Empiricists like Hume, Berkeley and Locke do not believe in innate knowledge. They opine that it must be from experience, either from the five senses or reasoning through the brain (Duncan 610). The innate knowledge thesis states that there is knowledge of various truths in certain subject areas, say, S, as part of human rationale nature. However, empiricism about a certain subject does not agree with the analogous version of the innate knowledge thesis. Question Three Ethics is the discipline of moral righteousness of human acts as guided by the doctrines of natural reason. This branch of philosophy is concerned with recommending, defending and systematizing the concepts of what wrong and right conduct is (Vendemiati 14). Because it commands the actions of the will, ethics is directive and practical. Although both Kantian and utilitarian ethics agree on the concept of an intrinsic good, the key difference arises on their perception of “good”. Utilitarian ethics believes in an action course in which overall happiness, or pleasure, is maximized. In utilitarianism, which is also a typical type of results-based ethics, it is stated that human welfare, also called “utility”, should maximized. In given situations, therefore, ethically right choices are those that result in the least unhappiness and most happiness among the largest count of people. On the other hand, Kantian ethics, proposed by Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, is based upon deontological ethical theory and developed from enlightenment rationalism. Kant believed that a good will is the only truly good thing (Wood 43). Hence, the only way an action can be good is when the underlying principle is obligation to moral law. In opposition to utilitarianism, Kant believed that actions such as lying, theft or murder must be outlawed even in circumstances where the actions would result in more happiness. Unlike utilitarianism, Kantian ethics hold that the wrongness or rightness of actions is not dependent upon the consequences or results but rather, on whether the moral duty is fulfilled (Wood 50). Question Four Logic entails employing valid reasoning in carrying out certain activities. In philosophy, logic is the normative study of reasoning concerned with the criteria and principles of validity of demonstration and inference. Inferences entail steps from a proposition or more, called premises, governed by rules, to other propositions known as the conclusion. Deductive inferences are meant to be valid, whereby the conclusion has to be true when the premises are true. The rest of the inferences are referred to as inductive. Logic, thus, concentrates on the studying deductive inferences (Gabbay & Guenthner 94). The Euthyphro reflects primarily on the Socratic perceptions of the issue of defining justice and piety. Euthyphro defends the practical standards set by the gods for humans even in circumstances that their acts are immoral as well as the civil values under the new democratic order. Socrates conservatively accepts the family ties that restrict the use of law but also supports piety as univocal, unitary and universal concept. In spite of his moral adherence to the old traditions of kinship, he seeks a logical standard that is sensitive to the differences and also relevant pious actions. According to Euthyphro, piety is a science of sacrifice and prayer (Gabbay & Guenthner 103). He means that it is the knowledge of how to do and say what pleases the gods, hence justifying his act of placing charges of manslaughter against his own father. Works Cited Boyle, D. Descartes on Innate Ideas. London: Continum, 2009. Print. Duncan, Pritchard. “Some Recent Work in Epistemology”. The Philosophical Quarterly, 54 (2004): 605–613. Print. Gabbay, D. M & Guenthner, F. Handbook of Philosophical Logic. Dordrecht: Kluwer Publishers, 2005. Print. Loux, M. J. Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction. London: Routledge, 2006. Print. Nelson, Quee. The Slightest Philosophy. Indianapolis: Dog Ear Publishing, 2007. Print. Vendemiati, Aldo. In the First Person, an Outline of General Ethics. Rome: Urbaniana University Press, 2004. Print. Wood, Allen. Kantian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print. Read More