Why does Mackie think we need an error theory Do you think he is right to believe that we need it - Essay Example

?The error theory s that the idea of morals is not absolute and that in fact, morals are only a figment of the imagination of the societies thatpractice them, since they are nonexistent. The error theory is a denial of the existence of morals and it can be said that the existence of morals is considered by the proponents of this theory to be relative to the society that practice them. The error theory suggests that morals are not absolute, that what is morally right or wrong vary from one society to another. It is a theory that states that morals are judged, not by the universal moral norms, but according to the society within which a circumstance calls for moral clarification (Dorsey 2006, p.495). When one considers the definition above, it can be stated that the morals are no longer absolute in different societies because of the fact that they have evolved over a long period, changing considerably from one society to another. A good number of the proponents of this theory, such as John Mackie, believe that morality was an invention of societies to maintain control over its members, and it is because of this that morality varies. If, for instance, morals and social norms were universal in all the societies, in the world, then there would have been no differences in morals, and as a result, the error theory would not have been developed. The error theory states that the idea of morality or the adherence to morals depends on the assumption that they exist; this assumption being false because morals are not based on the reality of the situations being judged. Error theory can be considered a viewpoint where there is the belief that morality is dependent on the norms of the cultures, which practice it. It is these societies which determine whether the actions of individuals is morally right or wrong and those who propagate this theory believe that there is nothing that can be said to be the absolute truth concerning morality because what is considered to be right in one society may not be considered the same in another. If one were to consider Mackie’s statements concerning the error theory, the fact that what is considered morally right in one society may not be so in another show that morality is not a universal norm. There are often chances where what is considered morally right in one culture may be considered wrong in another, an example being the situation of homosexuality. While, in the western world, homosexuality is an accepted norm in society, in other parts of the world, especially in Africa and Middle East, one would find that this practice is frowned upon, and those found in the act tend to be severely punished. Therefore, when it comes to the concept of the error theory, the opinion of what is right or wrong is not judged by norms that would be considered universal because of the fact that it cannot be measured nor do the said morals exist (Delapp 2009, p.8). Morals, if one were to follow Mackie’s argument, are made up by the societies, which put them in force and because of this, these societies become slaves to concepts, which are logically nonexistent. Among the main advantages of using the error theory when considering morals is the fact that a broad range of views concerning morals is taken into consideration. Since there is a wide variety of cultures and practices, it is easier for one to adapt to any situation that one may encounter through the understanding of the motivations behind the development of various cultural norms as well as look upon such morals in an objective way. Moreover, it can be said that the error theory can be used towards the development cultural understanding, which ensures that people are judged, not according to the opinions of other cultures, but according to that of their own cultures and societies. It recognizes that fact that morals are nonexistent and this creates a situation where societies can be studied on an equal footing. Since it is the society which judges what is right or wrong, the people within it have a clear understanding of what is required of them and, therefore, easily adhere to its norms. It can be said that the knowledge of error theory and the reasons behind it allows individuals to adapt morally as the norms of their societies change over time, and this ensures a smooth transition, since moral values do not necessarily remain the same over time. The error theory, when applied in the study of the moral values makes the study objective because those who conduct such studies are not tied down by the moral prejudices against other cultures that may be prevalent in their own cultures (Garner 2007, p.500). Another advantage of the error theory is that right and wrong are relative and since this can be applied to societies according to their own moral values, it is easy to apply especially for those who are conducting research on morals or ethics. According to this theory, the truth varies from one society to another, and this may create a dilemma because this truth can be twisted to serve the purposes of the few who would benefit from it. When one considers this theory, one would say that just because some individual or their society, think that something is right does not necessarily make it so. For example, the institution of slavery was considered wrong in mid-nineteenth century America, however, just because a few slave owners in the South believed that it was right; it was maintained in this nation for long after it gained independence and the equality of all men was stated in its constitution. This example can further be used in an attempt to justify the error theory by stating that while slavery may have been right two centuries ago in America, it is currently not acceptable. This shows the truth concerning the error theory whose main argument is that morals are relative in different societies and because of this; they are nonexistent. The fact that moral values are nonexistent can be justified through the way they often change over time as certain values become acceptable while others are rejected (Loeb 2007, p.471), the error theory does not reflect the faith that positive ethical standards are general and that they happen in all cultures. One would say that error theory has merit because of the fact that it puts into consideration all the different moral values that occur in human societies and treats them equally. The error theory distinguishes that all moral values are synthetic and therefore have no meaning that can be based on authenticity. Since moral values are not based on reality, it is right that they be treated as being only parts of the collective imagination of human beings. While globalization has continued to take place and cultures and their norms have come to take on a global perspective, the error theory has become an important tool to be used in the study of the various moral values that are taking root in most human societies. With the adoption of a globalized culture, it would be extremely detrimental if this theory were not to be used in matters concerning the study of various cultures. One of the greatest advantages of the use of the error theory is that it enables the creation of opinions based on informed study of moral values instead of making opinions based on biased conceptions of different moral values. This theory can further be used to make individuals realize that their attachment to moral values in society may not necessarily be justified in reality and because of this; they should lessen their attachment since they are based on reason and not in the true nature of things. Mackie describes this attachment as being queer, since it is a feature among human beings that cannot be described because, despite the fact that humans can be described as being animals, their development of moral values is anything but natural. When one considers the interpretation of Hume on personal identity, one will find that he was a bundle philosopher. He believed that the self is nothing but a bundle of experiences or perceptions that were linked by the relations of causation and similarity and in a more accurate way, it can be said that the empirically guaranteed idea of the self is just the idea of such a bundle. This view is corroborated by positivist interpreters, who believed that Hume was suggesting that expressions such as self, person, or mind referred to collections of "sense-contents". However, some thinkers have criticized the bundle theory explanation of Hume on personal identity and these thinkers have claimed that diverse personalities can have views that stand in relations of contrast and causation with one another (Hume 1740, pp.56). Thus discernments must already come packaged into distinctive bundles before they can be related according to the relations of resemblance and causality. In other words, the mind must already possess a unity that cannot be generated, or constituted, by these relations alone and since the bundle theory interpretation portrays Hume as answering an ontological question, these thinkers believe that Hume was not very concerned with such questions and have queried whether the view is really Hume's. Instead, it is suggested that Hume might have been answering an epistemological question, about the causal origin of our concept of the self and because of this, one will find that Hume’s thoughts are in line with those of Mackie since the latter believed that the mind and human thoughts were based on experience rather than coming naturally. Alongside the development of this work concerning the mind and language, McDowell also made significant inputs to moral thought, particularly meta-ethical debates over the nature of moral reasons and objectivity. McDowell established the opinion that has come to be known as secondary property practicality, or awareness or moral sense theory and it proceeds through the mechanism of an ideally honorable agent. This agent has two linked abilities and one of these is that he has the right conceptions and the correct hold of concepts to think about situations in which he comes across himself by coming to moral beliefs. Secondly, for such a person such moral beliefs are habitually overriding over other reasons he may have and in a particular way, they "silence" other reasons and it is McDowell’s belief that this is the best way to capture the customary idea that moral reasons are especially authoritative (McDowell 1978, pp.14). All human societies in the world have developed some form of moral values, which are rigorously within these societies; therefore, anyone who goes against these morals tends to be punished by the other members of society so that any deviations from the set moral values are deterred. The goal of punishing individuals for offenses they committed is to ensure that they do not repeat the same offense. In other words, the main purpose for punishment is if anyone in society deviates from the set moral values in society is deterrence, so that individuals are forced to conform to the values that have been set for them. While this has often been the case, in many instances, those who are punished, for example by being sent to prison, tend to end up committing the same offenses for which they had been convicted. This works towards proving that the error theory, according to Mackie, is pertinent because if it was indeed true that moral values were real, then they would have been an integral part of human nature. No individual would have been willing or able to deviate from the moral values, as they would have been instinctive. To ensure that crime of all kinds are deterred and that individuals in society continue to follow the moral values in society, new and innovative ways have been developed to punish individuals who deviate from them. Among these have been punishments aimed at shaming individuals into avoiding deviating from those norms that have been set by society. This requirement has ensured that the rates of individuals who have been punished for deviating from their societies’ moral values have been reduced significantly. When one considers the error theory, one will find that most individuals have become slaves to the moral values of their societies, with little space being left for them to make individual decisions. Since most forms of deviation are frowned upon in many societies and almost always punished, new and innovative ways have been put into place to ensure that such deviations are prevented at minimal cost. One of these means of deterrence that have been put in place has been the use of shaming, especially for repeat offenders. It has been found that this is the most cost effective ways for the achievement of deterrence as well as the satisfaction for the demands of retribution as is demanded by the society’s moral values. Many individuals in society would say that this is a reasonable punishment because it achieves the goal of punishing the individual through being exposed to the public throughout the period of time that has been put in place to punish him. The shame derived from this exposure ensures that the individual involved does not repeat the same offense and he eventually avoids any further deviations from the moral values set by his society. Because of the restrictions that human beings have placed upon themselves, they have failed to realize that moral values are in fact nonexistent and that they only exist in their minds. If Mackie’s argument concerning the nonexistence of moral values were to be put into serious consideration, one would find that it is indeed true since these values are based on reason rather than nature. Moral values can be considered to have been instituted by societies not because they are a natural part of it but because of ensuring that there was order within them. Moral values can be considered to have been a means through which the ruling elite could develop social control and these values became so ingrained that most members of society came to abide by them unquestioningly. This has created a situation where it has become the norm for the ruling authorities in society to enforce the moral values of the society to the complete abandonment of any new ideas that may come along (Svoboda 2011, p.38). Any deviance from the values of the society has become crimes and offenses and steps have been taken to ensure that any deviance is deterred. An example of how the authorities in society have come to enforce obedience to moral values is in the Bronx area of New York. In this area, the most frequently used method of deterrence to crime is the highly unpopular stop and frisk method. This is where police officers have been given the authority to stop anyone who they suspect of having criminal intentions and searching them. Despite its original intention of helping to deter deviation from moral values, it has come to be extremely unpopular with the residents, especially those from those people who come from minority groups. This is mainly because of the fact that a majority of the people stopped tends to be from minorities and the police officers often use force against them if they display any sign of resistance. While this practice was considered the best way to deter crime in the Bronx, it has become one of the means through which individuals have become slaves to their own moral values. The power that has been invested in moral values has become so great that human beings have forgotten that they are the creators of these values. This is where Mackie’s argument that moral values are nonexistent comes into play because he argues that they are not based on the reality of life. It has been found that while humiliation can be an effective form of punishment and deterrence on those individuals who would deviate from the set moral values of their societies, it has to be strictly managed to ensure that the rights of these individuals are not infringed. While this method seems to work in some cases, it has come to have the opposite effect because it has made some individuals to rebel against the moral values that have been imposed on them. In considering Mackie’s argument, one will find that he is of the opinion that while moral values are nonexistent, they have been developed in the human mind and conscience through the experiences that humans have had throughout the ages. These experiences have come to shape how individuals perceive life and how they have come to adapt themselves to their environments. In addition, Mackie argues that the ancient laws, which were put in place to govern human beings, have influenced moral values and these have led to the development of values whose original purposes have been lost in time. This slavery to tradition has continued mainly because of what Mackie refers to as the sentimental attachment that human beings tend to have in relation to objects that evoke different feelings in them. Religion has played and continues to play a significant part in the development and maintenance of moral values and this has been used a mean of further entrenching these values in society (Cohen, Keltner and Rozin 2004, p.734). The fact that moral values are nonexistent, as stated in the error theory, is not put into consideration. Individuals in all societies in the world have become so accustomed to adhering to their respective moral values that they have taken them for granted, seeing them as a natural and integral part of their lives. The moral values that are found in all societies in the world and the knowledge of how to apply such values have their origins in the imagination. The first step towards the development of moral values and the knowledge gained from their use is by first imagining them and then taking the necessary steps towards creating them and putting them into use (Pettit 2008, p.5). The moral values have been developed through the human imagination that can be said to be the reason why human beings have been raised from the same level as animals to the advanced creatures that they are currently. Without imagination, human beings would not have had the necessary sophistication to allow them to form the societies and the moral values accompanying them, which would eventually develop into the great states and civilizations that have existed throughout their history. One would come to an agreement with Mackie that human beings are exceptional beings who have the aptitude of having an unconstrained imagination. The uniqueness of human beings is based on their ability to imagine the impossible and being able to develop ideas, which bring these imaginations as close as possible to reality. Moral values are a product of the human imagination because it is through the process of their development that they become a reality in the worldview of human beings. Therefore, it can be said that the moral values as practiced by human beings are a figment of their imaginations and not a part of reality. As has been stated above, one of the most influential factors that have led to the false assumption that moral values are an integral part of human societies, which develop naturally. Christianity, which is the main influence in the development of western moral values, has had, and continues to have, an immense influence on western culture (Stingl and Collier 2004, p.751). Christianity has come to provide the basis for the moral rules that determine the western view of the world and the moral values instilled by the Christian Church ensure that there are still many adherents to the faith. It is a fact that many people in the west are taught Christian moral values from the time when they are extremely young, and this makes them conscious of their actions, making sure that they are aware of how their actions are going to affect others. For example, it is always the expectation of individuals that when they make a mistake, people would view it tolerantly because they did not wish to do it intentionally but that it just happened by accident. It is this expectation, as is taught in Christianity, which encourages individuals to treat others who have made mistakes directly affecting them with tolerance because it is the Christian belief that one should not hold grudges (Oddie and Demetriou 2007, p.491). While these moral values are predominant in western society, it is a fact that individuals in this society have different characteristics and this makes them adapt differently to these values. This is the reason why despite there being a standard set of values, there has developed plenty of instances of deviance which have come to prove that the error theory is correct, it has proven Mackie’s argument that moral values are nonexistent and have no place in the natural order of human societies. If the error theory is applied in society, it would enable individuals to develop respect and acceptance of the differences of others as one of the fundamental bases of the worldview of individuals and this can be put into practice in as many situations as possible. This application of the error theory has to come from the interaction with many different people who come from different backgrounds and cultures, which are at times nothing like the one in which individuals were raised. If one were to consider Mackie’s arguments, then one would come to the belief that everyone is entitled to their own viewpoint in all the moral aspects of life because all people in the world have the capacity to think for themselves and be independent (Pigden 2007, p.443). The belief that individuals should take the time to listen to the opinion of others and respect these opinions even if they do not necessarily believe in them should be encouraged because this is the only way through which they can regain their independence. The error theory as propagated by Mackie is of great benefit especially in such situations such as learning about others because it helps one to have an open mind towards everything in the environment in which they live. Doing so has also would also help individuals to develop very close friendships with people who they would otherwise have not have had any time for and this will ensure that there will develop lifelong friendships. The application of this theory enables individuals to create the necessary social skills to interact confidently with people from different backgrounds on an equal basis without any feeling of superiority over each other. In conclusion, it can be said that globalization, as a force, has come to have a profound influence on the moral values of many people in the world, and this influence can be said to have been both positive and negative. In some areas, it can be said to have had a positive impact for those values which it has come to influence, because it has not only enriched these cultures, but it has also ensured that some of their characteristics have been spread all over the world. However, it has also been noted that the globalization of moral values has led to the erosion and near extinction of some cultures and these have come to be replaced by the dominant western culture, which is the driving force behind globalization. Finally, it can be said that Mackie’s error theory is right since it is high time that human beings started looking beyond their moral values and towards a universal conception of life. References Cohen, A.B., Keltner, D. & Rozin, P. 2004, "Different religions, different emotions", Behavioral and Brain Sciences, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 734-735. Delapp, K.M. 2009, "The Merits of Dispositional Moral Realism", Journal of Value Inquiry, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 1-18. Dorsey, D. 2006, "A Coherence Theory of Truth in Ethics", Philosophical Studies, vol. 127, no. 3, pp. 493-523. Garner, R. 2007, "Abolishing Morality", Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 499-513. Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature (1967, edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1740. Loeb, D. 2007, "The Argument from Moral Experience", Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 469-484. McDowell, J. 1978, “Are Moral Requirements Hypothetical Imperatives?”, Aristotelian Society Supplementary Vol. 3, pp.13-29 Oddie, G. & Demetriou, D. 2007, "The Fictionalist's Attitude Problem", Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 485-498. Pettit, P. 2008, "SUBSTANTIVE MORAL THEORY", Social Philosophy & Policy, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 1-27. Pigden, C.R. 2007, "Nihilism, Nietzsche and the Doppelganger Problem", Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 441-456. Stingl, M. & Collier, J. 2004, "After the fall: Religious capacities and the error theory of morality", Behavioral and Brain Sciences, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 751-752. Svoboda, T. 2011, "Hybridizing Moral Expressivism and Moral Error Theory", Journal of Value Inquiry, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 37-48. Read More