Colonization of Chile and Mapuche Peoples And Colonization of Peru And Incas - Essay Example

For indigenous people survival has been a major challenge in a world where they have always been denied the right to existence. Land has always been the maim source of livelihood but the indigenous people have long struggled to gain and keep access to this precious resource (LRAN, 2005). Land and land rights are the issues faced by the natives in any part of the world. Globalization has led to dramatic changes in the economic process including modernization of the agricultural system. Developments in the agricultural policies have resulted in pushing the framers and the indigenous people or the farmers out of business. It has allowed the concentration of larger agro-industrial enterprises. This has forced the peasants to become dependent on the globalised agricultural economy. In most areas the right to own, occupy and use land collectively is done by a group of people or local community, the tribe or the indigenous group. Because of powerful economic interests communal possessions turn into private property. Indigenous people have always been rooted in specific locations and now demand the demarcation and recognition of these territories which ensures their social, economical and cultural survival. This paper will discuss the colonization of the indigenous peoples of Chile, and the reactions and treatment of the Mapuches, along with the colonization of the indigenous peoples of Peru, the Incas. The first concerted attempt to colonize Chile was in 1520 when Diego de Almagro, a companion of conqueror Francisco Pizarro, headed south from Peru in 1535 (Coutsokis, 2002). He was not satisfied with the mineral wealth available so retraced his steps. The second attempt was made by Pedro de Valdivia in 1540. He was more persistent that his predecessor and soon became the first governor of captaincy general of Chile, which was the colonial name until 1609. Chile has always been denied the cultural and ethnic diversity and the mind of the people has been influenced into believing that theirs is a racially homogenous society (Aylwin, 1998). The Spaniards brought significance changes to the lives of the people in Chile who tried to impose their laws and beliefs, as well as take possession of their lands and wealth. The Spaniards also wanted to control the vast territory until then inhabited by the indigenous people. They built fortified cities and distributed the land to their soldiers in payment for their services to the King. The fortresses built by the conquerors were scattered and small and failed to defend against the Araucanian attack. The Mapuche are the indigenous inhabitants of Central and Southern Chile and Southern Argentina, generally called the Auracanos or the Araucanians (Wikipedia). Even tough small amount of gold was found, Valdivia determined that Chile would remain predominantly an agricultural country. The Mapuche assaulted and destroyed the fort of Tucapel in 1553. Valdivia rushed to the spot but all his men were killed by the Mapuches. He himself was later tracked down, tortured and killed by the Mapuche. Through out the colonial rule, the Chileans remained loyal to the crown. While they complained of certain policies or officials but they never challenged the regime. They even resented their reliance on the Peru for governance, trade and subsidies but still did not defy the crown authority. The creoles or the Spaniards born in the new world resented the dominance of the Spaniards born in the old world. They began to consider self-government only when the king of Spain was overthrown at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The elite Chileans specially the land owners started asserting themselves in politics before any movement for independence. Gradually these elites managed to get hold of government positions, became in the good books of the bureaucracy and had informal authority in the country side. The Mapuche or the indigenous people of Chile fought the control of the Spaniards who were finally frustrated (Aylwin, 1998). The Mapuche managed to expel the conquerors from their territory in southern Chile. The Mapuche chief Lautaro who led the resistance later became a revered figure among the Chilean nationalists. He was killed by the Spaniards in 1557 and it took several years to suppress the rebellion (Coutsokis, 2002). The Araucanians no longer threatened to drive the Spaniards out although they destroyed small settlements from time to time. The Mapuche held on to their territory for another three centuries. The Spaniards were so frustrated by the Mapuche that Europeans did not return until late in the nineteenth century. This resistance came to be known as the War of Arauco. The Bio-Bio river was used as the national frontier of resistance to Spanish and Chilean incursion (Coutsokis, 2002). When Chile split from the Spanish crown, some sided with the colonists while many remained indifferent which demonstrates that they were the people in their own and land and did not perceive the threat that the colonists posed of imposing their own culture. According to the 1992 consensus, the Mapuche are the largest indigenous people in Chile. Out of a population of 928.060 only 17.28 percent continue to live in rural communities in southern Chile while more than 80 percent in urban communities (Aylwin, 1998). The law and policies by the state has been towards division of their communal land and their allotment into individual lands ruled by the general provisions of property law. The land size diminished while the population expanded which affected their ability to maintain their traditional lifestyles. This led to deterioration in the quality of life. According to the statistics of 1995, only 10 percent of the Mapuche homes had electricity and 20 percent had no radio or any electronic equipment at all. Due to migration, the number of women in these communities had decreased while that of men increased. The urban Mapuche also lives in shanties in the suburbs of urban towns like Santiago, Temuco and Concepcion. They are engaged mostly in bakeries and construction; they receive minimum wages, lack employment stability and social security. Despites these, the community has not weakened but strengthened their demands and the organization during that time. New organizations have emerged that focus on the recuperation of the ancestral territories and acquisition of political power within them. The Inca Empire rose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the 13th century. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a wide variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation (Wikipedia1). The Empire was divided into four Suyus or regions whose corners met at the capital Cuzco in modern Peru. Even though the official language was Quechua, many languages were spoken. There were many local forms of worship but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti, the sun God. They formed a small city-state of Cuzco under the leadership of Manco Capac in 1438 (Incas, n.d.). A lot of area around was brought under Inca control. The kingdom of Cuzco was reorganized into an Empire which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head. They tried to amass as much land as possible by extolling the leaders with benefits of joining hands with them. Most gave in and the ruler’s children would then be brought to Cuzco to be trained in the administration system, and then return to rule their native lands. In the meantime, in 1532, a group of Spanish conquerors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated Inca Emperor Atahualpa and imposed Spanish domination (Wikipedia1). A war of two brothers – Huyana Capac’s sons – Huascar and Atahualpa along with the epidemic of small pox and unrest among the newly-conquered territories had weakened the Empire (Incas, n.d.). The Spaniards arrived at the height of the civil war and they had one of the finest military machineries in the world. They also had native allies who supported them to end the Inca control of the territories. All these factors helped them to capture the Inca elite and force them into a political struggle. The Viceroyalty of Peru was established in 1542 with jurisdiction over most of its dependencies in South America. Under the leadership of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo the country was reorganized and the basic economic activity was silver mining and the primary work force was the Indian forced labor. Bullion thus produced fetched massive revenue for the Spanish crown and a trade network was formed. This network was controlled by the merchants from Lima which extended to Europe and other parts of the world. Snuggling and tax evasion resulted in diminished earnings from bullion. Several reform measures were adopted which led to increase in tax collection and the viceroyalty was partitioned in order to create separate viceroyalties for Nueva Granada and Rio de la Plata. Peru remained a royalist stronghold even when most of South America was swept by wars of independence. The elite were torn between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarch. Independence was achieved only after the military campaigns of Jose de San Martin and Simon Bolivar. Even though there were endemic struggles between different military caudillos, Peru enjoyed several years of stability because of guano exports but these resources were soon depleted. The country was once again under heavy debts and political infighting began. The Spanish rule was rather indirect. The colonial administrations and land owners transmitted their demands through local chieftains and did not directly interfere with the daily life of the Indians (Collier, 1996). They colonists practiced mass resettlement of villages, demanded a work-tax of the Indians. The tradition and the people were repressed under the new Spanish rulers. Many aspects of Inca culture was destroyed including their sophisticated farming system. One member of each family was forced to work in gold or silver mines and they were literally forced to death. They maintained a separate class of artisans and servants. The greed of the landowners and the corruption of the administrators provoked the Incas. Today half the population in Peru comprises of Incas descendents (Answers.com, 2007). They are primarily farmers and herders living in close knit communities. Both Peru and Chile were colonized by the Spaniards although there are some significant differences. In Peru, they had the support of the natives which was not present in Chile. The Mapuche resisted but the Incas had infighting which weakened them and allowed the colonists to take advantage of the situation. The Spaniards arrived in Peru at the height of the civil war but there was no such disturbance in Chile. The elite Chileans tried to establish themselves as informal authority even before any struggle of independence began but the elite Incas were torn between emancipation and loyalty to the crown. In Peru, the colonists had the support of the local natives which was not present in Chile. In Chile however, some of the indigenous people remained undisturbed by the colonization showing that they had never lost their independence. The colonists practiced forced labor and family sacrifice in Peru which was not present in Chile. The cultures in both cases were modified and the lifestyles of people changed. Fortresses were built in Chile while every building in Cuzco was destroyed and a new Spanish city was built on old foundations. The Incas were not successful in regaining the empire while the Mapuche managed to keep their territory to themselves for almost three centuries. Thus it is evident that Peru, being more disorganized and disturbed internally, had to undergo more struggles than Chile which was united to a large extent. Colonization anywhere in the world has always been confronted with resistance, struggles, and demonstration of power. The colonists always attempt to impose their own culture and laws. The purpose in every case is only to expand their territory and repress people by imposing forced labor. The struggle is reduced if the area to be colonized is internally weak as in the case of Peru. Because of these struggles and the consequent resistance no economic growth takes place in the region. Any development has to demonstrate improvement in the lives of the people and the communities. While the indigenous people have always tried to resist, the elite in every group has been able to muster some amount of support. References: Answers.com (2007), Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, 16 June 2007 Aylwin, J., (1998), INDIGENOUS PEOPLES RIGHTS IN CHILE: PROGRESSES AND CONTRADICTIONS IN A CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION, 16 June 2007 Collier, P. F., (1996), The Incas, 16 June 2007 Coutsokis, P., (2002), Chile CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION, 1535-1810, 16 June 2007 Incas (n.d.), Incas Empire, 16 June 2007 LRAN (2005), Indigenous Peoples: An Essay on Land, Territory, Autonomy and Self-Determination, 16 June 2007 Wikipedia, Mapuche, 16 June 2007 Wikipedia1, Peru, 16 June 2007 Read More