The Essence of Fatherhood - Essay Example

"The Nature of the Claiming Process for Fathers" Submitted On ______________ To ______________ By: ______________________ Introduction The purpose of this paper is to examine and discuss "the nature of the claiming process for fathers. This is a:"critical but poorly understood "(Marsiglio, 2004 -10) concept, that has been and continues to be studied and analyzed by Marsiglio and several other distinguished and reputable researchers. This report is a detailed study of work that has been done to date. The hypothesis is that this type of work must continue, the concepts and findings should be given more attention and ways for this work to be more widely understood by those it most affects (fathers and the families they are involved with) should be found... The methodology for this study is to examine 'what makes a man a father' with reference to psychological, critical psychological and sociological perspectives. Psychological The literature search for psychological information regarding fathers, parenting and other topics that related to 'the nature of the claiming process for fathers' revealed a number of journal articles, books and articles in popular magazines like Psychology Today. Beaton, Doherty and Rueter (2003) conducted a detailed study designed to examine "family of origin processes and attitudes of expectant fathers" Methodology for the study included structural equation modeling and multiple regression analysis with a sample of 152 couples. The 'eco systemic model of fathering was tested and used to examine the 'relative strength of the modeling hypothesis and the compensation hypothesis for linking these constructs." The authors discovered that expectant fathers "who were either very close to their parents of very distant from their parents during childhood had more positive attitudes about father involvement." The authors of this study also note that "expectant fathers who believed their own fathers were competent in their paternal roles, had stronger attitudes about fatherhood. The findings also showed that expectant fathers who believed that their parents disagreed about child rearing and discipline rules while they were growing up had more positive attitudes about fatherhood. .." The eco-systemic model of how family of origin history and processes are associated with attitudes about father involvement previous to the birth of a man's first child were thoroughly examined in the new study along with reference to previous research of a similar nature. The authors point out that despite the fact scholars have been hypothesizing for decades that "family of origin processes are associated with future father involvement (work by Doherty, Kouneski and Erickson, 12998; Pleck, Charonoy and Levine, l985 and Pleck 1995 was cited in the article) little research has actually been done to test the hypothesis until they began to look at this particular issue. Beaton points out that "According to Doherty et al.'s (1998) eco-systemic model of father involvement, five interrelated factors determine responsible fathering: co-parenting relationship, mother factors, father factors, contextual factors and child factors. These factors interact with one another to determine how fathers will be involved with their children. These factors interact with one another to determine how fathers will be involved with their childrenIntergenerational processes from the past interact with current relational factors to determine father involvement" The new study by Beaton and colleagues (2003) was an investigation of "how these processes work" In keeping with traditional psychological models this study included an extensive literature review that clearly illustrates the serious and extensive efforts that have been undertaken in efforts to create a better understanding of the eco-system model in relation to our topic. "There have been two prominent conceptual models for understanding intergenerational influences on current family relationships: intergenerational family systems theory and attachment theory. Intergenerational family systems models are based on the premise that family values, assumptions, and beliefs are transmitted from one generation to the next (Boszormenyi-Nagy & Ulrich, 1981; Bowen, 1978; Framo, 1981; Williamson, 1981). According to Bowen (1978), a healthy adult is a person who is able to self-differentiate from the negative influences of their family of origin. Presumably, problems can occur in current marital and parent-child relationships when adults are rigidly tied to relationship patterns learned in their families of origin that may be a result of emotional fusion with their parents (Bowen, 1978). There is mixed support for Bowen's hypothesis that a self-differentiated adult has better functioning adult relationships (Day, St. Clair, & Marshall, 1997; Prest, Benson, & Protinsky, 1998). Moreover, Bowen's assumption that fathers bring different relationship patterns from their families of origin about marital relationships and co-parenting practices needs to be studied. For example, which co-parenting practices do expectant fathers bring from their families of origin about how mothers and fathers are to be involved with children" (2003) "Attachment theory posits that nurturing and close parent-child relationships early in life are associated with positive functioning across the lifespan (Ainsworth, 1973; Belsky, 1984; Bowlby, 1969; Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986). Consistent with attachment theory, researchers have found that attitudes about father involvement develop through both positive and negative family of origin experiences (Belsky, 1984; Floyd & Morman, 2000; Snarey, 1993). Studies have demonstrated a positive association between family of origin processes and father-child attachment (see Belsky, 1999; Van Ijzendoorn, 1995). For example, Snarey (1993) in a 35-year-longitudinal study showed how warmth experienced by men during childhood from their parents was positively associated with displays of warmth toward their offspring. Three other retrospective studies have shown how mothers' and fathers' secure attachments during childhood were associated with the secure attachment of their own infants (Cohn, Cowan, Cowan, & Pearson, 1992; Cowan & Cowan, 1992; Steele, Steele, & Fongay, 1996). These findings support a modeling hypothesis, the notion that parents who experience positive and close relationships with their own parents growing up demonstrate high levels of affection to their children." (2003) On the other hand, unaffectionate relationships between fathers and sons in childhood can lead to sons being more involved with their own children (Floyd & Morman, 2000; Pruett, 1987; Radin, 1988; Snarey, 1993). Floyd and Morman (2000) with a sample of 506 men and their adolescent sons found the men who were most affectionate with their sons had fathers who were either highly affectionate or highly unaffectionate--a kind of compensation effect. In qualitative studies, the majority of men report that their own fathers were not positive role models, and that they desire to be more positive role models for their own children (Daly, 1993; Ehrensaft, 1987). Floyd and Morman (2000) argue that father involvement is based on a combination of the modeling and compensation effects. "The modeling hypothesis predicts that men who experienced high levels of involvement from their fathers in their family of origin are significantly more likely to become highly involved fathers with their own children. The compensation hypothesis argues that men who are dissatisfied with the fathering they received will feel compelled to remake the fathering experience into something more positive for their own sons, thus compensating for a perceived lack of caring, nurturing, or involvement from their own fathers. (p. 349)" (2003) Beaton and his colleagues believe further investigation must be conducted in order to determine "what specific types of father's family of origin processes have a linear relationship and which a curvilinear relationship with father involvement." Arts & Entertainment Automotive Business & Finance Computers & Technology Health & Fitness Home & Garden News & Society Reference & Education Sports Cook, Jones, Dick and Singh (2005) point out there is support for a wide spectrum of possibilities around the "likelihood of father involvement when using gender role ideology as a predictor variable: 1. "gate keeping," or that the mother's traditional ideology is an important factor in predicting father involvement (Allen & Hawkins, 1999; Fagan & Barnett, 2003; Hoffman & Moon, 1999; McHale & Huston, 1984), 2. that the father's but not the mother's egalitarian ideology is associated with his involvement (Bulanda, 2004; Wille, 1995), and 3. that neither parent's ideology seems to have an impact on the father's likelihood of involvement (Marsiglio, 1991)." (2005) "These researchers point out that "men (as parents or nonparents) will not participate in domestic labor unless both spouses hold egalitarian ideologies (Greenstein, 1996). Although a recent societal shift in ideology has occurred whereby men and women are encouraged to take equal roles in care giving responsibilities (Hawkins & Dollahite, 1997; McBride & Darragh, 1995; LaRossa, 1997), fathers still tend to be less involved than mothers with regard to childcare tasks (Pleck, 1985). Due to the overall confusion in identifying what level of influence ideology has on father involvement, personal expectations are examined in this study as an alternative perspective for how thoughts are translated into behavior." (2005) Sociological For the past decade Marsiglio has been working on developing a social psychological framework for "conceptualizing men's procreative identities." (2003). The work that he does is based on data from interviews conducted with young men. According to Marsiglio Procreative consciousness, the core concept captures the varied ways men cognitively and emotionally experience being aware of their ability to create life..this consciousness .involves men's experiences with responsibility issues related to procreation and prospective fatherhood" Marsiglio also points out that the awareness about their procreative identity also lies in "men's latent consciousness or long-term memory Marsiglio suggests that his framework can be used by community and school based initiates "to promote men's self awareness of their sexual and procreative identities." (2003). "The challenge," he states, "for health care providers and educators is to develop, expand and refine strategies that enable young males to become more aware of their sexuality and more responsible about their power to create human life." In his book, Fatherhood, Contemporary Research and Social Policy, Marsiglio (____) identifies how social and cultural changes affect the traditional roles of fathers and actually have forced us to reexamine how fathers interact with their children. The collection of research pieces by a number of scholars examines cultural, class, nationality differences as well as custodial status. Marsiglio believes that we need to consider changes that have taken place in society that include: "Shifting marriage and divorce patterns Transformation in the workplace Growth of the women's movement and the development of the men's movement" He points out that it is important to explore how fathers today are involved in child care, fathering in inner cities and single parent fathers with custody of the children." (2003) Marsiglio's extensive work in the area of how fathers are functioning and identifying with their roles has been well received as the following reviews of his work indicate: "Until now, family scholars had not explicitly theorized and focused on how physical space shapes fathers' lives. A distinct volume of theoretical and empirical research, Situated Fathering addresses this oversight by proposing a new framework for studying how various contingencies of physical space in conjunction with social and symbolic issues affect men's identities as fathers and their involvement with children. Consistent with public interest in men's efforts to "be there" as providers and caregivers, this book explores issues associated with the barriers and supports to involvement that are part of the physical and social environment. Written largely for family scholars and students, it emphasizes a future-oriented perspective by outlining directions for theoretically guided research in specific, often gendered, fathering sites. Situated Fathering makes an outstanding contribution to how we understand fathers' lives in their many, varied contexts: physical, institutional, cultural, and social. --Joseph H. Pleck, University of Illinois "Focusing on the link between fathers' experiences and the social organization of space, Marsiglio, Roy, and Fox provide a powerful framework for understanding the social conditions that foster or undermine involved fathering. Situated Fathering highlights how men negotiate varieties of fatherhood in a range of often-overlooked settings, from farms to inner cities to prisons and beyond. An important contribution that helps us see all fathers--and, indeed, all parents--in a new way." --Kathleen Gerson, New York University Critical Psychology Definition from www.MyWiseOwl.com: "Critical psychology is both a critique of 'mainstream' psychology and an attempt to apply psychology in more progressive ways (based, for example, on Marxist or feminist analyses) and contexts than have thus far been the case. There are a number of textbooks of critical psychology and ant least two critical psychology institutes in Manchester and SydneyCritical psychology started in the 1970's in BerlinOne of the most important books in the field is the Grundlegung der Psychologie (Foundations of Psychology) by Klaus Holzkamp (Frankfurt a. M. 1983), who might be considered the theoretical founder of critical psychology. Some years ago the department of critical psychology at the FU-Berlin was closed and was added to the traditional psychology department. Nevertheless, this approach of psychology is still alive." Baruch and Barnett (PUB MED Website) have conducted some interesting work that appears to be in keeping with the critical psychology model. The relation of fathers' participation in family work (child care and home chores) to parents' role strain and well-being was examined in an interview study of 160 Caucasian middle-class fathers and mothers of kindergarten and fourth-grade childrenWell-being measures assessed self-esteem, life satisfaction, and quality of experience in the parental and marital roles. Regression analyses, carried out separately for fathers and for mothers, indicated that, contrary to expectation, when the level of fathers' participation was controlled maternal employment did not condition the relation between participation and the outcome variables. Findings varied for the different forms of participation. For fathers, higher levels of participation were associated with feeling more involved and competent as a parent and with being more critical of wives' patterns and parenting. For mothers, those whose husbands were more participant praised their husbands' parenting, but they were lower in life satisfaction and were more self-critical about their balance of work and family responsibilities." (2005) Conclusion While considerable research has been done to determine what most affects the way men perceive themselves as parents this writer believes the work being done by Marsiglio may have the most validity. The fact that Marsiglio is taking the actual observations and feelings of the subjects in his studies is evidence that he respects the concept of the men being able to think for themselves rather than having their behaviors and actions observed by others and placed on a graph or in a table as the psychology based studies must do in order to be considered 'valid.' In short this writer believes the work of Marsiglio needs to be given more attention and respect not only by the scholars and students who represent the academic world by the media and magazines and journals that reach the general population. It is important, the writer believes for men to be given this information in order for them to begin to critically analyze and assess their own feelings and the way they present as fathers. If the topic becomes one that is seen as 'socially acceptable' it appears that the fathers of today would be the second half of an incredible 'win win situation' in that their attitudes, sensitivities and awareness of their actions as parents could be significantly enhanced. Bibliography Baruch and Barnett (PUB MED Website) Article; Relationships Between Fathers and Children; Consequences of fathers' participation in family work: parents' role strain and well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986 Nov; 51(5):983-92. PMID: 3794998 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]; Retrieved from the World Wide Web at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez; December 5, 2005 Fathers' participation in family work and children's sex-role attitudes. Child Dev. 1986 Oct; 57(5):1210-23. PMID: 3769607 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE] Retrieved from the World Wide Web at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez; December 5, 2005 Beaton, John M.; Doherty, William J.; Ruster, Martha A.; (Article, June 2003, Fathering); Retrieved from the World Wide Web December 5, 2005 at Cook, Jerry L.; Jones, Randall M. Dick, Andrew J.; Singh, Archana; "Revisiting Men's Role in Father Involvement: the Importance of Personal Expectations'; (Article); Spring 2005 Marsiglio, William, Roy, Kevin, and Fox, Greer Litton (2005, Eds.). Situated Fathering: A Focus on Physical and Social Spaces. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Marsiglio, William; Making Males Mindful of their Sexual and Procreative Identities: Using Self-Narratives in Field Settings; Volume 35; Number 5; September/October, 2003 Unnamed Author; Definition of Critical Psychology; Wise Owl Web Site; Retrieved December 4, 2005 from the World Wide Web at www.wiseowl.com Read More