Ways in Which Fatherhood and Motherhood Impact on Work and Organizational Careers - Literature review Example

Discuss the different ways in which fatherhood and motherhood impact on work and organizational careers in the early 21st century Introduction The position of males and females in the workplace has been highly explored, mostly because of the increase in the phenomena of discrimination in the workplace. In practice, males seem to be favoured by the rules governing modern workplace, with the following exception: in case of fatherhood the treatment of males in the workplace is differentiated, being closed to that of females who also have children. Current paper aims to examine the following issue: can fatherhood and motherhood impact work and organizational careers in the early 21st century? The answer is positive even if a different response would be possibly expected taking into consideration the significant advances in the legislation related to the rights of males and females in the workplace and the prohibition of discrimination. It should be also noted that the development of a standard rule in regard to the potentials of individuals, both males and females, with children to fight for their employment rights is not possible. In fact, the review of the literature related to this subject has revealed that the impact of fatherhood and motherhood on work and organizational career is significant, an issue that needs to be taken into consideration by governors and legislators worldwide. 2. Fatherhood and motherhood as factors influencing work and organizational careers in the early 21st century. In the workplace, fathers and mothers have the potential to use certain advantages, as set by the law for the particular category of employees Shwalb, Shwalb and Lamb (2012) refer to the parental leave scheme, a scheme that allows fathers, as also mothers, to be far from work for a particular period of time in order to take care of their children (Shwalb, Shwalb and Lamb 2012, p.321). The time allowed for parental leave is differentiated worldwide, under the influence of the local ethics and culture. According to a research developed by Johansson (2010), when fathers decide to take paternal leave, the income of mothers is significantly improved, reaching a percentage of even 7% on a monthly basis (Johansson 2010, in Shwalb, Shwalb and Lamb 2012, p.321). This means that the use of paternal leave can help mothers ‘to increase their contribution in the family’s expenses, a fact that would highly benefit their self-respect and confidence (Shwalb, Shwalb and Lamb 2012, p.321). Reference can be also made to the findings of another survey, also included in the study of Shwalb, Shwalb and Lamb (2012). In the context of the above survey Scandinavian parents were asked to state their view in regard to their preferable mode of family - expenses sharing by parents (Shwalb, Shwalb and Lamb 2012, p.321). A high percentage, 63%, of the participants responded that they would prefer that the family expenses would be covered equally by both parents (Shwalb, Shwalb and Lamb 2012, p.321). In any case, since the high majority of fathers is paid more than mothers, fathers are more likely to contribute at a higher percentage in family expenses (Ranson 2011). Miller (2010) highlights another issue. Because employment policies are different in each country, according to the local ethics and culture, it is quite difficult to identify a strategy that could highly promote the power of mothers and fathers in the workplace and that would be applicable in all organizations that have similar characteristics (Miller 2010, p.13). In this context, the potential identification of an effective strategy for helping fathers in the workplace would not affect the status of fathers in other organizations, who have different conditions and challenges to face (Miller 2010, p.13). The lack of an integrate policy for supporting fatherhood in the workplace is related primarily to the different political systems and interests in each country, a reason for which the introduction of integrate policies for facing the needs of fatherhood and motherhood is not feasible. Indeed, each government is likely to have different perceptions on the necessity for taking measures for protecting fatherhood and motherhood (MIiller 2010, p.13). From a similar point of view, the lack of an integrate scheme for managing the rights of fathers and mothers in the workplace is related to the different cultural framework of each country (Parke 1996, p.109). In certain countries it is possible that the participation of the woman in the workplace is prohibited while in other countries even if the rights of women in the workplace are recognized, in practice it is quite difficult tor women to fight for their rights in the workplace (Parke 1996, p.109). In the above case, the lack of balance in regard to the treatment of male and females in the workplace cannot be restored, unless the government or the legislator intervenes for solving the above problem. The effects of culture on the rights of fathers and mothers in the workplace can also have a different form. For example, in Japan a 48/hours working week has been established (Parke 1996, p.109). At the same time, employers are given the right to develop a six/days mode of work on a weekly basis (Parke 1996, p.109). Such practices are not common in Western countries, where more flexible working schemes tend to exist. In this context, the rules that Japanese legislators have promoted for regulating the rights of fathers and mothers in the workplace cannot be applied in Western countries due to different working cultures between Japan and the West (Parke 1996, p.109). Schneider (2011) focuses on the effectiveness of measures taken by governments for protecting the rights of fathers and mothers in the workplace. According to the above researcher, even when governments introduce appropriate policies for securing the rights of fathers and mothers in the workplace, these policies are often ignored (Schneider 2011, p.11). The reason for this phenomenon can be many: a) increased need for a position can lead fathers and mothers to avoid referring to a governmental policy that favours their rights in the workplace, b) in continuously changing working environments it is quite difficult to secure the rights of employees, even when specific rules of law exist (Schneider 2011, p.11); for example, when having to change its structure periodically, for achieving particular tax benefits, a firm cannot monitor effectively its obligations towards fathers and mothers working in its departments (Schneider 2011, p.11), and c) workplace rules may be extremely complex and the rights of employees, including fathers and mothers, are difficult to be precisely identified (Schneider 2011, p.11). According to Karsten (2006) the effects of fatherhood and motherhood on workplace and organizational career cannot be the same for men and women. Indeed, there are important ‘stereotypical differences’ (Karsten 2006, p.203) between men and women that lead to different evaluation of their rights in the workplace. Reference can be made for example to the following cases: a) women are more sensitive to family problems than men (Karsten 2006, p.203), b) women’s role is more related to the care of the family than to the workplace (Karsten 2006, p.203); many women also consider that the time spent on their family should be significant and that this amount of time should not be reduced because of professional reasons (Karsten 2006, p.203), c) working women are more likely to try to locate time for the care of the children than working fathers (Karsten 2006, p.203) and d) women are not able, and not willing also, ‘to proceed to a full separation between their family and their professional life’ (Karsten 2006, p.203). Because of the above, the position of mothers in the workplace is, necessarily, differentiated from the position of fathers. As a result, when having to seek for their interests in regard to their work, fathers are likely to have more chances to win the relevant conflict compared to mothers (Kugelberg 2006). According to the issues discussed above, motherhood and fatherhood cannot impact equally the work and organizational careers in firms internationally. More specifically, mothers are expected to face more difficulties when having to seek for work, since the future employer will think of the rights that the employment laws recognize to working mothers (Gregory 2003). In this context, mothers are likely to face more difficulties when trying to enter the job market (Hepler 2000). For fathers, the rights of whose in the workplace are significantly less compared to mothers, no such problem exist (Hepler 2000). It is probably for this reason that in all countries worldwide, the percentage of unemployed females is significantly higher than the percentage of unemployed males (Korabik, Lero and Whitehead 2008). However, after entering the workplace, mothers are like to enjoy more benefits than fathers (Korabik, Lero and Whitehead 2008). The superiority of mothers in regard to their working benefits is limited by the difficulties that mothers face when trying to improve their position in the organizational hierarchy (Korabik, Lero and Whitehead 2008). Fathers do not have to face such problem, an assumption that it is verified by the fact that the percentage of fathers working at top management positions is significantly higher than the percentage of mothers. From a similar point of view, Gilliland, Steiner and Skarlicki (2007) note that ‘marriage and family are more destructive for the career of women than the career of men’ (Gilliland, Steiner and Skarlicki 2007, 58). It is explained that women are likely to ignore their professional interests and follow their husbands in case that the latter are removed to another area (Gilliland, Steiner and Skarlicki 2007, 58). Moreover, married women are less likely to enter a job that would require a long daily trip (Gilliland, Steiner and Skarlicki 2007, 58). In this context, the position of mothers in the workplace is more likely to be continuously threatened compared to the position of fathers who are expected not just to keep their job position but also to increase the potentials of their role (Gilliland, Steiner and Skarlicki 2007, 58). The different position of women and men in the workplace is reflected in the study of Korabik, Lero and Whitehead (2008). The above researchers refer to the term ‘occupational ghettoes’ (Korabik, Lero and Whitehead 2008, p.237), a term used ‘by Charles and Grusky in 2004’ (Korabik, Lero and Whitehead 2008, p.237) for showing the inequality between men and women in regard to a variety of employment terms. For example, women are less likely ‘to be hired in highly paid jobs, they are more likely to face an unwilling remove to another organizational department and they are more likely to suffer a reduction of their compensation with no justification’ (Korabik, Lero and Whitehead 2008, p.237). All the differentiations between fathers and mothers in the workplace, as presented above, can be controlled by HRM by using appropriate diversity management schemes (Konrad, Prasad and Pringle 2006). Manning and Curtis (2003) also highlight the importance of managing diversity for keeping employee motivation high. The above researchers promote the idea that diversity management policies cannot be standardized, even within the same organization, but it would be highly flexible being open to changes, if necessary, so that the needs of each employee are appropriately addressed. Powell (2010) has noted that managing diversity in the workplace can be a challenging task not only because of the unstable market conditions but also because of the differences, in terms of background, skills and so on, among employees, even those working in the same department. On the other hand, Esty, Griffin and Hirsch (1995) note that the perceptions of each leader in regard to HRM and the need of diversity management are not standardized. In the HRM department of each organization different views may appear on the potentials of the organization to support mothers and fathers as of all their employment rights (Esty, Griffin and Hirsch 1995). The hierarchy of organizational priorities is often evaluated differently by individuals with different personal and professional background (Esty, Griffin and Hirsh 1995). This means that in other organizations, keeping the percentage of mothers, among employees, at high level can be a key tool for keeping performance standardized (Esty, Griffin and Hirsh 1995). For other firms, such view may not be accepted and it is possible that mothers, as employees, are considered as a threat for the organization’s growth (Esty, Griffin and Hirsh 1995). For this reason, the level at which fatherhood and motherhood affects work and organizational career cannot be precisely estimated in advance nor it is standardized. In any case, it seems that fathers have a critical advantage in regard both to their hiring in a specific position and to their chances for professional development (Paludi 2012). .Moreover, not all HRM managers are able to understand the actual needs of fathers and mothers in the workplace. In fact, the leadership style used in a particular organization can affect the organization’s treatment towards fathers and mothers, benefiting more either the fathers or the mothers (Kirton and Greene 2012). In the above case, emphasis is made not just on the personal perceptions of leaders or of HRM, but also to their skills in identifying and implementing effective diversity management practices (Kirton and Greene 2012). Reference should be also made to the organizational culture that may favour more fathers or mothers, according to the organizational objectives and the attitude of the leader (Kirton and Greene 2012). In regard to the value of diverse workforce, Kirton and Greene (2012) have noted that promoting a diverse workforce is not only voluntary, being depended on the perceptions of an organization’s manager. It is often obliged by the law, so that discrimination in the workplace is eliminated (Kirton and Greene 2012). 3. Conclusion One of the most critical challenges that fathers and mothers have to face in the modern workplace is to identify a schedule of work that would best suit to their family routine. In practice, the above target cannot be achieved mostly because of the intervention of factors that are difficult to be predicted in advance. For example, the absence of a teacher leads to the differentiation of the school program and the child finishes earlier than estimated. Parents need to identify ways so they can respond to such emergencies without violating rules of work. In the literature the impact of fatherhood and motherhood on work and organizational career is made clear. Moreover, it has been proved that each father or mother has a different approach in managing issues related to fatherhood and motherhood and which tend to appear in the workplace. Emergent leaves or delay in starting work, because of a severe family problem, are common phenomena in workplace. The establishment of rules that protect fatherhood and motherhood in the workplace has not sufficiently improved the position of fathers and mothers, as employees. Additional measures need to be taken focusing on the following issue: family life should be protected so that employee motivation is kept high. In other words, promoting the rights of fathers and mothers in the workplace is not necessarily a negative strategy for each organization. Rather, it can be considered as a strategic solution of increasing employee motivation and employee morale, as these feelings are key conditions of employee performance. References Esty, K., Griffin, R. and Hirsch, M., 1995. 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