Using an Evolutionary Scale in Ranking Cultures - Essay Example

Cultural Exchange Name Institutional Affiliation Cultural Exchange Introduction As a majority of nations become multicultural communities on the national level, societal differences continue to persist in the population. Although these differences primarily stem from cultural difference, there is a significant contribution emerging from individual positions in the community. McSweeney (2002) note relation between the cultural and social systems, where although distinct the social aspects depend on cultural structures. It is also significant to include McSweeney (2002) views on national culture characterized through five main assumptions. Here, the discussion about these assumptions and their critical analysis reveals that they fail to characterize the identity of a national culture. At this point, it is likely that the challenge in reaching an effective definition follows the complexity of cultural understanding. This essay discusses the thoughts by Edward Tylor on using an evolutionary scale in ranking cultures. In particular, it examines the issue arising when defining culture as well as the appropriateness of Tylors’ technique in the 21st century. It proceeds by comparing three definitions of culture and selection of the more effective culture definition in reference to knowledge on intercultural communication. Answer A The contemporary society features different cultural and linguistic diversity necessitating the need to acquire cross-cultural communication skills. Spencer-Rodgers and McGovern (2002) discuss the importance of intercultural communication, especially in maintaining positive intergroup relations. Imperative in meeting this function are the factors influencing the competency in intercultural communication which include cultural knowledge and awareness (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). Here, cultural knowledge entails the effective definition and understanding of culture. However, defining culture today is subject to multiple challenges including its complexity and the different disciplines that provide varying meaning of the term. Ladau-Harjulin and FRSA (2003) define culture as a progressive programming of the mind whose outcome is the distinguishing of people. The definition becomes relevant when examining the social norms established within a national or ethnic boundary. Furthermore, there is passing down of accumulated wisdom generation-to-generation that cements the position of these social norms as cultural identifiers (Ladau-Harjulin & FRSA, 2003). In a psychological perspective, Valsiner (2007) questions the role of culture to human beings. Valsiner (2007) considers it as a foundation for the psyche as well as a source of superficial differences in people. With this opinion, Valsiner (2007) explains culture as that which functions at the mental and social spheres of human life. Moreover, the definition explains interdependency on the mind and society in creating culture whereas culture directs the substance that actualizes both the mind and the society (Valsiner, 2007). Based on Kecskes (2015) define culture as a system comprising of shared beliefs, norms, customs, values, behaviors and artifacts. Imperative of the system is its role in the society which allows the people to manage their world and relations with others. It is also significant to understand its primary features according to this definition which include its regularity and variety (Kecskes, 2015). Here, the features explain culture as a dynamic phenomenon modified and blended to the particular situation. As such, the definition aligns with the knowledge in intercultural communication as an ideological construct applied to specific context to direct human behavior and set boundaries. Moreover, the understanding enhances the employment of efficient intercultural communication to manage the agreement of a culturally diverse people. Spencer-Rodgers and McGovern (2002) introduce the intercultural communication barriers as contributors to limited cultural knowledge and awareness. The particular barriers result from group differences established through three specific elements of pattern of behavior, affect and cognition (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). With these differences, the population faces the challenge of bridging language barriers, varying values and norms and unfamiliar customs and practices. Spencer-Rodgers and McGovern (2002) explain that communication in such a setting evokes adverse emotions. These emotions develop from anxiety in engaging the culturally different people. Furthermore, there is varying opinion about the competencies and trustworthiness among different cultures which escalate the meeting of cultural knowledge (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). Cognitive elements characterized through the norms and values upheld by a particular culture are a significant challenge in the matter of culture definition. Spencer-Rodgers and McGovern (2002) include that these cognitive causal factors with an example of stereotypes direct the emergence of particular unfavorable attitudes. Here, the different stereotypes ingrained in the population determine the emotion in people especially concerning how their view and relate to an out-group (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). Consequently, the different emotions direct interpersonal behavior leading to prejudice. An example includes the national, cultural and ethnic stereotypes accorded to foreign students making them socially isolated and discriminated by the culturally dominant students (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). Usually students from developing nations face the stereotypes of being inferior and of a low-status relative to those from developed regions. Comparatively, individual within a higher ethnocentric group may consider their low-level counterparts as hostile (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). Answer B In a study about the different stereotypes in a multicultural education institution in the US, Spencer-Rodgers and McGovern (2002) include the different possible attributes experienced by the minority groups in the establishment. Imperative about these minority groups is their origin from different nations which entail diversity in culture and ethnicity. As the attribute in this group of foreigners constitute national, ethnical and cultural stereotypes. Table 1 below summarizes the information into two groups of positive and negative perception (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). At this point, it is important to consider that each nation has its positive and negative stereotype which identifies the characteristics of its citizens particularly in foreign soils. Table 1: The consensual foreign student stereotype among the American host nationals Answer C According to Ladau-Harjulin and FRSA (2003), there are over two hundred countries in the world which entail an event great number of cultures within these national regions. In particular, there is cultural diversity generated by geographical regions within the same nation. Examples of these include the variations of value and behavior in the northern and southern region of Germany, Italy and France. It is also important to include the fact that some states origins comprise of people of different ethnical and historical backgrounds with the example of Russia and the UK (Ladau-Harjulin & FRSA, 2003). Furthermore, with increased globalization, international business, technological advancement and political-economic partnerships as characteristics of the century there is an increase in intercultural interactions. Imperative in these interactions is the changes in culture categorization from the prior traditional hierarchical models to more diversified and inclusive techniques. Traditional cultural categories function by generalizing the population characteristics into particular groups. Here, the mechanism included the use of geographical divisions, religion and race (Ladau-Harjulin & FRSA, 2003). However, the population contains many inconsistencies that surpass the rigid groups used in the conventional classification systems. Other researcher includes professional, regional, generational and political categorization models which altogether prove insufficient in the task (Ladau-Harjulin & FRSA, 2003). Edward Tylor proposed an evolutionary scale in ranking cultures arguing of that it is the only fit mechanism developed through specific stages in human progression process. Comparatively, Ladau-Harjulin and FRSA (2003) proposes a categorization model involving linear-active, multi-active and reactive cultures. Here, the two modern techniques prevent the differentiation of people along the racial, philosophical, religious and social-class divides. At this point, it is important to consider the contribution of colonization to culture as well as categorization of these cultures. With the contribution of colonization, it becomes easier to consider the appropriateness of Tylor’s mechanism in producing an efficient cultural categorization method that identifies with the characteristics of the century. Marker (2003) discusses existing features of regions formerly colonized by Western European and Soviet power. Usually, these regions continue to face internal conflicts emerging from conflicts between emergent and colonially established policies (Marker, 2003). Furthermore, colonial rule practiced an administration system of setting boundaries, class privilege, poor treatment of indigenous groups and uneven distribution of resources (Marker, 2003). Consequently, there arose cultural alienations, dispersion and distribution. Moreover, following the end of colonization imperialistic influences persisted in a majority of these nations. Marker (2003) note that the colonial influences in various parts of the world contributed to differences in evolutionary rates. Therefore, colonial influence in cultural categorization and present patterns in the society presents a contrary evolution process to the suggestion by Tylor. Answer D Cleveland, Rojas-Méndez, Laroche and Papadopoulos (2016) explain the contribution of globalization in hastening cross-cultural convergence. Furthermore, there is an increased in social-cultural diversity stemming from transient mobility and immigration of populations. Ladau-Harjulin and FRSA (2003) discusses the effect of this growing cultural diversity examining their impacts to existing cultural systems. In particular, there is globalization and its impacts in economic growth for different regions in the world (Ladau-Harjulin & FRSA, 2003). With globalization, there have been periods of economic downturn and booms occurring in different patterns. As such, these changing patterns in economy interpret to unequal development among nations leading to either an increase or decrease in societal evolution (Ladau-Harjulin & FRSA, 2003). Ladau-Harjulin and FRSA (2003) presents different interpretation and implication of the term globalization one of which involves the advancement of a nation on a global scale. Here, the term interprets to a difference in societal progression on an economical paradigm. Ladau-Harjulin and FRSA (2003) note the characteristics of the 21st century including dynamic and frequent changes in trends particularly in the political economic and social aspects. Imperative about these trends are their variation among nations which explain a difference in their interpretation of civilization or globalization. As such, Tylors’ model of a universal comparison of events as well as assumption on a trend occurring equally among the different nations fails to align with the features of the century. It is evident that populations in the 21st century differ in the evolution patterns and system greatly influenced by the socio-economic effects along political revolutions. Conclusion In summary, the multicultural and social diversity in today’s contemporary society limit the effective definition of culture. However, intercultural communication strives to bridge the cultural difference in people by encouraging more cultural knowledge and awareness. As such, it views culture as a system comprised of shared norms, beliefs, values, architecture, behavior and customs. Although effective in managing cultural diversity, it also contributes intercultural communication barriers featuring in the cognitive, effect and pattern of behaviors differences in the community. On cognitive contributions, this mostly develops through adverse attitudes, emotions and stereotypes that direct the interpersonal behavior in a culturally diverse society. Examining the case of cultural categorization, Tylors’ evolutionary model fails to accommodate the characteristics of the 21st century limiting its usefulness for this population. Therefore, further research on cultural exchange needs to consider the complexity in defining and characterizing culture in a society where external forces continue to introduce diversity. References Cleveland, M., Rojas-Méndez, J. I., Laroche, M., & Papadopoulos, N. (2016). Identity, culture, dispositions and behavior: A cross-national examination of globalization and culture change. Journal of Business Research, 69(3), 1090-1102. Kecskes, I. (2015). Intracultural communication and intercultural communication: Are they different?. International Review of Pragmatics, 7(2), 171-194. Ladau-Harjulin, U., & FRSA, P. L. (2003). Advance praise for Richard D. Lewis’, The Cultural Imperative: Global Trends in the 21st Century. Marker, S., (2003). Effects of Colonization. Retrieved from http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/post-colonial McSweeney, B. (2002). Hofstede’s model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faith-a failure of analysis. Human relations, 55(1), 89- 118. Spencer-Rodgers, J., & McGovern, T. (2002). Attitudes toward the culturally different: The role of intercultural communication barriers, affective responses, consensual stereotypes, and perceived threat. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26(6), 609-631. Valsiner, J. (2007). Culture in minds and societies: Foundations of cultural psychology. Psychol. Stud.(September 2009), 54, 238-239.   Read More