Health Impact Assessment for Transport - Essay Example

Name : xxxxxxxxxxx Institution : xxxxxxxxxxx Title : Health Impact Assessment Tutor : xxxxxxxxxxx Course : xxxxxxxxxxx @2010 Executive Summary The transport sector can be described as one of the significant sectors with profound effects on health. Transport can evidently affect health both positively and negatively. The particular paper aimed at evaluating of the concept of Health Impact Assessment, through giving an in-depth analysis of the concept and its uses. Furthermore the paper evaluated the implication of policies essentially in the transport sector and their effects on people’s health. As a result a relevant case study of HIA of the London 2012 Olympic Games has been presented to indicate the importance of Health Impact Assessment to the environment and the society. Introduction Health Impact Assessment is a method of assessing the health related implications of policies, projects and plans in various sectors of the economy using qualitative, participatory and quantitative techniques. HIA can also be described as a key tool for planning that is used to address health related issues that are development based, in an organized and evidence based manner (Scott 1997).According to Kemm etal (2004), Health Impact Assessment is drawn from a variety of disciplines however the two main conceptual roots are based on environmental impact assessment and promotion and appraisal of healthy public policy (HPP). The procedure of undertaking HIA is usually similar to those utilized in carrying out other forms of impact assessment such as social impact assessment and environmental impact assessment. Whether undertaken as a distinct procedure or as an environmental procedure, the outcome of HIA should be a plan for public management that combines operational measures and infrastructural implementation that acts towards intensification of health services in order to address the increasing health risks in society (Scott 1997). One of the basic uses of Health impact assessment is to act as a decision making tool, that facilitates the addressing of health issues. HIA specifically seeks to give decision makers information concerning strategies of how to mitigate the harmful and maximize the positive effects of health and health inequalities. In general a HIA program that is successful entails providing findings that decision makers can utilize to develop and implement healthy projects and polices. Thus in order to effectively assist decision makers, HIA has to be closely liked to the process of decision making and structured in a manner in which it can influence the decision making process. In addition another necessity for HIA is that it should be in proportion with the particular decision it is intended to influence (Josephina 2009). Health impact assessment is also a useful tool for the formulation of healthy public policies. HIA has to be based on predictions that add value to the process of policy formulation. The process must conform to policy making information and policy makers administrative structures. As a result, the major objective of HIA is to utilize existing knowledge and facts concerning health impacts, to the community, in order devise recommendation that are evidence based that can lead to policies that facilitate improving and protecting community wellbeing and health (Birley 1995). In terms implementation, after the health action plan has been devised, it is vital that during the implementation stage the responsibilities of all key stakeholders has to be well defined. In addition, the project should allocate resources and design a monitoring system that will ensure that the mitigation process is successful (Josephina 2009). Health Impacts of Transport Air Pollution Within the U.K transport sector, motor vehicles are greatly responsible for air pollution. This is essentially because they contribute 46-61% of nitrogen dioxide and 25% of other emissions. Although regulations on emissions are becoming more rapid in recent years, the amount of nitrogen dioxide and other pollutants has been increasing due to congestion which basically influences the increase in emissions from vehicle (Elena 2005). One of the short term health impacts of air pollution to people’s health is frequent respiratory hospital admissions and cardiovascular hospital admissions. The frequent admissions are caused by carbon monoxide due to incomplete combustion. Furthermore, the combustion of fuel which results to formation of sulpher dioxide also results frequent hospital admissions. A study undertaken in 2005 indicated that this kind of pollution affected the health of individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular and respiratory disease. Moreover, exposure to areas where construction of airways are being undertaken, also increase frequent hospital admissions (Elena 2005). Increased symptoms of Asthma and bronchitis are other impacts of air pollution from transport. These particular conditions are caused by combustion of particulars that result from road traffic and reactions from air chemicals emitted from activities such as vehicle tyre construction. People who are more Susceptible to increased Asthma and bronchitis are also those with pre-existing cardiovascular and respiratory disease (Elena 2005). Long-term impacts of air pollution on health include effects on lung functioning. The condition is caused by air combustion from nitrogen dioxide. People who are more susceptible to effects on lung functioning are those living close to main roads. Another long term effect is Leukemia which is mainly caused by distribution of petrol and combustion. The main pollutants include Benzene and Butadiene which results from the combustion of petrol. Individual who are more exposed to Leukemia include occupational exposure and people living close to petro filling stations (Bos 2006). Air pollution from transport can also result to death (Bos 2006). It is evident that healthy living is an essential aspect of existence for human beings. As a result cumulative exposure to pollutants that affect the health of an individual may ultimately result to death. For instance health impacts such as poor lung functioning and Leukemia in most cases end up to be fatal. Noise Pollution A survey undertaken in Wales and England for 24 hours in 1990 indicated that Noise from transport systems essentially roads contributed to 92% of environmental pollution. One of the health impacts of noise pollution from transport is that chronic exposure to this type of pollution may result to hearing loss. Research indicates those older males who have been significantly exposed to noise experience a reduction in hearing sensitivity with time essentially by the time they get to 79 years (South 2007). The European commission also reported that noise pollution from transport systems results to stroke and Coronary heart disease. The report highlighted that living near airports can be termed as a health hazard essentially for people frequently exposed to airport noise. The estimates made the E.U indicated that 20% of the population in Europe or approximately about 80 million people are usually exposed to levels of noise from airports which the union considers as unacceptable and unhealthy. Airport noise also has a significant effect on the health of children. A study undertaken on German’s Munich’s International Airport in 1995 associated chronic noise exposure to cardiovascular levels and high nervous system activity in children living close to the airport (Larry 2005). Noise pollution from transport systems also results to mental health disturbances. Noise pollution can not directly be linked to mental illness related problems, however it is assumed as a factor that leads to intensification and acceleration of mental health disorders. A study on population indicated that noise pollution causes adverse effects such as stress, emotional instability, nervousness, anxiety, headache, mood changes, psychosis and hysteria which further accelerate the level of mental illness (South 2007). Cardiovascular disturbances can be termed as another common effect of noise pollution on health. A growing body of research indicates that noise pollution has both permanent and temporary impacts on human beings by way of autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. It has been estimated that noise acts as a biological stressor that is non specific that elicits body reactions for a flight or fight response. As a result of this, noise triggers both autonomic and endocrine response of the nervous system which further triggers response by the nervous system that has significant impact on the cardiovascular system, which is a risk factor that causes cardiovascular disease (Ferguson etal 1996). Physical Activity In our current society obesity is a health condition that is increasing among many children and adults. It is evident that physical activity reduces obesity which contributes to health conditions such as stroke and heart disease. Cycling is a major transport activity that can be termed as beneficial in terms of positively improving the health of individuals (Joffe& Sutcliffe 1997). For instance people are encouraged to cycle while going to work or attending school as opposed to driving. One of the impacts of physical activities on health is the improvement of an individual’s immune system. The immune system is essential in terms of protection of the body from systemic diseases and infections. Studies indicate that moderate activities like cycling are very useful in strengthening the immune system and therefore contributing to healthy living. In addition increase in physical activities is useful in the reduction of tumor cells (British Medical Association 1992). Mental illness is also reduced by physical activity. This is essentially because physical activity facilitates body movement that result to stabilizing the emotional and physical functions of the body, thus resulting to countering effects such as depression, anxiety and other psychological problems (WHO European Center for Health Policy, 1999). Physical activities are also very much useful in the reduction of cardiovascular and heart diseases. The heart is the most essential organ for healthy living however it can be damaged by inactivity. Physical activities such as cycling is an ideal means of training that makes the heart to be more stronger which further results to less stress levels . In addition regular cycling results to the reduction of the likelihood of experiencing a heart attack by more than 50% (Andersen & Schroll 2000). Respiratory muscles are also strengthened by regular physical activity. Oxygen is a vital element of respiratory functioning. Research indicates that respiratory functioning is frequently distorted by lack of exercise and adiposity. As a result regular physical activity is a useful remedy for the strengthening of respiratory muscles and improving ventilation of the lungs and therefore resulting to a positive impact on the exchange of oxygen. Research also indicates that frequent physical activity results to reduction of various types of cancer such as, breast, colon, pancreatic, lung and prostrate cancer (British Medical Association 1992). Community severance, inequality and other effects Community severance is mainly caused by the building of major roads through a community, which results to a section of local residents being excluded from the easy and safe assess of schools, shops and social networks. Community severance also occurs when roads that have high traffic levels are built across housing areas. Studies have also indicated that frequency and number of social contact reduces as the volume of traffic increase. People living without such kinds of social support such as health facilities experience higher rates of mortality. The health impacts of community severance from the transport sector are mainly speculative. However direct impacts can be associated to lack of quick or easy access of health facilities, for instance in case there is an emergency health condition , it gets difficult to access faster emergency services, which may further result to adverse impacts on the health of people within the secluded region. Other effects include susceptibility to transport pollutants which further impact the health of people living near roads (Acheson, 1998). Inequalities mainly arise due to lack of equal conditions or experiences among people. Within the context of the transport system injuries are most likely to affect cyclists and pedestrians as opposed to drivers. In addition inequality is also determine by financial capabilities of individuals which makes them more exposed to negative impacts of pollution that result from transport. For instance people who have more financial capability ensure that they do not occupy areas close to busy main roads. Noise, air and community severance resulting from traffic are more experienced by people who can not afford to live in other regions far away from such conditions (Birley 1995). According to Fischer, (1995) mobility /access also have impact on health. Access to healthcare, shops, work and social networks mainly requires transport. People ho do not own cars usually have reduced access to certain facilities that are designed for the purpose of car use for instance supermarkets that are out of town and hospitals that located on top of a steep hill or even out of town. Mobility may also be problem for individuals with disability; the implication on their health is that it becomes difficult to frequently get to hospitals to get frequent health checkups which may further have adverse implications on their health. Road traffic injuries also greatly impact health in our society. The transport sector is responsible for 39% of health complications and accident related deaths in U.K. Injuries associated to cyclists and pedestrians are more frequent in the U.K as opposed to other western countries. As a result the two groups are more exposed to health challenges associated to injury (Ferguson & McCarthy 1996). Case study Health Impact Assessment for London’s Bid for the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games London won a bid to host the Olympic games of 2012 from July to September. The Department of Public Health Department and Epidemiology found it vital to undertake a Health impact Assessment, during the initial bid in order to improve the areas capability in terms of hosting the Olympics in 2012. The team involved in the HIA admitted that Transport is a basic structural consideration for good health. As a result the team evaluated the potential of the existing transport plans for the Olympic Games in London in the year 2012. The objective was to indicate the commitment of encouraging sustainable healthy living in London (Olympic Development Authority 2007). The London Development Agency and the Olympic Development Authority were actively involved in making consultations with the local communities. The consultations involved engaging the view points of people being affected as a remedy for encouraging behavioral change. The main health issues raised included cycling and walking as part of the responses and proposals. Consultations were also conducted on some of the London professional officers and local borough concerning transport, health and planning (Olympic Development Authority 2007). Actual Implementation of the HIA Action Plan Roads system About seven million tickets are to be sold during the 16 days of the hosting the games. It was estimated that about 80% of the spectators were to arrive using public transport, inclusive of the 120, 000 who will travel through the Stanford station. The Olympic Games environmental committee put more emphasis on road transport. It also made prediction of specific street traffic flows. Most of the spectators were sited to arrive through public transport. The predictions made also stated that only 1% of spectators will arrive by cycling or walking (Mark & Robert 2010). The planning guidance around the Olympic site in East London (Lea river valley) involved the reduction of severance through enhancing improved transport accessibility and also ensuring that road transport links such as cycling and walking are more use friendly. Roads were also rebuilt in order to facilitate easy movement to the Lea River area. This will enhance the improvement of road junctions and thus reducing vehicle traffic (Mark & Robert 2010). Reduction of Effects of Transport on Health The residents surrounding the Olympic park were estimated to have more health problems as opposed to other areas of London due to the fact that many people do not exercise. Exercise would actually come in handy essentially for old adult men. However there was no indication that this particular population would transform to cycling and walking journeys, in contrast there is a substantial rise in traffic levels. However the Olympic Delivery Authority argues that it is essential to develop an active neighborhood essentially during the games as a result local communities in the region will be encouraged to cycle and walk to the Olympic site in order to encourage a more sustainable travelling pattern during the game (Olympic Development Authority 2007). The planners of the game highlight that walking and cycling will not only be useful for reduction of traffic but also it will be useful in terms of improving the health or the people living in the area. Noise During the games, the park area will have certain areas with limited noise due to reduction in road traffic associated noise (Olympic Development Authority 2007). Road accidents With the increase in the number of cyclists and spectators walking on foot the hazard of road accidents will be reduced. Furthermore the initiative of road expansion to the Olympic park will also assist in reducing the number of road accidents (Olympic Development Authority 2007). Cycling and Walking The Olympic park will be designed with green spaces in order to encouraging cycling and also link other cycling networks in the area (Olympic Development Authority 2007). Summary The Transport planning for the 2012 Olympic Games in London is evidently contributing to enhancement of sustainability. The effects on population health continue to be measured prospectively (Mark & Robert 2010). Conclusion The analysis above analysis has evaluated the concept of Health Impact Assessment as a method of evaluating the health related implications of policies, projects and plans in various sectors of the economy. One of the basic uses of Health Impact Assessment is that it acts as a decision making tool, that facilitates the addressing of health issues. In addition HIA is useful in formulation of healthy policies which facilitate the development of a healthier society. The report also evaluated some of the impacts of transport on health. Air pollution is a major pollution derived from the transport sector. The health implications of air pollution include frequent respiratory hospital admissions and cardiovascular hospital admissions, diseases such as Asthma and bronchitis, poor lung functioning and even death. Noise is also an active pollutant that results to health implications such as stroke and Coronary heart disease, increase mental diseases and cardiovascular disturbances. Physical activities linked to transport such as cycling and walking provide positive implications on health such improvement of the immune system, reduction of mental health complications reduction of diseases such as cardiovascular and heart diseases and cancer. In addition physical activities also strengthen respiratory muscles. Community severance which is the building of transport facilities such as roads through communities also exposes people to negative health effects due to the implication of a variety of pollutions such as noise and air. Inequality and lack of access also contribute to exposing people to transport linked health risks. The analysis was also based on a case study involving Health Impact Assessment of the 2012 Olympics to be held in London. The implementation of the HIA was undertaken by the Department of Public Health Department and Epidemiology. Some of the major initiatives that were to be implemented, and are still being implemented in order to get ready for the Olympics include rebuilding of roads and also linking road transport to other transport means such as cycling and walking. Advocating for physical activities was another remedy which involved walking and cycling for local the people. Noise reduction and the reduction of road accidents would be enhanced by reduction of traffic on major roads leading to the Olympic Park. The environmental implication of Health Impact Assessment is that it enhances environmental conservation. HIA results to formulation of policies and plans that assist in enhancing environmental protection. The initiatives or action plans are mainly aimed at enhancing environmental conservation. The development of natural resources, expansion of transport infrastructure and systems all participate to preservation of the environment (Drummond& Stoddart, 1995). The economic implications of HIA are linked to the fact that increase in initiatives that act towards improving the health of people in society results to reduction of chronic medical conditions which further results to the reduction of health care costs for diagnostic, prevention and treatment of chronic diseases. The social implication of HIA is that a healthier society is developed due to the elimination of inequality issues. HIA facilitates the development of a mechanism that can be used to identify possible health inequalities before the implementation of a proposed program, policy or project. References Andersen LB, Schnohr P, Schroll M, 2000, All-cause mortality associated with physical activity during leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work, Arch Intern Med Publication. Acheson, 1998, Independent Inquiry into Inequalities in Health, London, Stationery Office. British Medical Association, 1992, Cycling: towards health and safety, Oxford University Press. Birley, M.H, 1995, The health impact assessment of development projects. London, HMSO, Bos, R, 2006, Health impact assessment and health promotion, World Health Org. Drummond, M and Stoddart, G, 1995, Assessment of health producing measures across different sectors, Health Policy. 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