Gender Role Formation in Context of Social Influence and Health Implication - Essay Example

Gender Role Formation, in Context of Literature, Research Works, Social and Family influence and Health Implication Gender is usually used to categorize the biological sex or the distinction in reproductive system in the anatomy of a female or male. In social sciences gender encapsulates not only the biological differences but also the social constructs of expectations concerning the roles or the manner in which one can behave, think and respond, according to the respective sexual category. These social constructs are generally called as gender roles. Specific attitude to gender roles emerges from an intricate interaction of various variables like political, social, cultural, family, religious and ethnic factors. (Gender and Health) Literature Literature can influence the society and is to a large extent influenced by the society. In the recent time contemporary literature has reflected the biases inherent in the stereotyped gender roles and at times revolted against it. For example Taslima Naseers book “Laaja” speaks of the women who live in stifling circumstances arising out of gender stereotype role casting and biases. In Dan Browns famous book “The Da Vinci Code” the conservative aspect of church regarding gender roles is brought to light. Traditionally a woman is considered to be subservient to men and men do not accept women in positions of control or power. The church sort to obliterate Mary Magleland’s position after the death of Christ, by propagating a version of Christ where, evidence of her existence was washed out. Ana (Hernandez del) Castillo, a poet and novelist is one of the most prominent voices of Contemporary American Feminist Literature. In her books and poems she explores the interaction of sexuality and gender with cultural conflict and racism. The Mixquiahuala Letters (1986), she brings out the changes that Hispanic women have witnessed in Mexico as well as United states. In another novel So Far From God (1993), she discusses the highly complicated and complex relationship and lives of the Latino women. (Virgil Suarez .( February 2000). HISPANIC AMERICAN LITERATURE: DIVERGENCE AND COMMONALITY) Research and studies In a study conducted in Jakarta and Makassar in Indonesia (June 2004) it was found that in middle class families full time household and domestic chores performed by women were not valued. In families with high social status and with educated working women the women were perceived as secondary bread earner while the men were perceived as the primary bread earners. (Ariane J. Utomo. (September 15, 2004). Romanticising the gender wage gap in modern Indonesia) In a study where the data from 1987/1988 and 1992/1994 National Survey of Families and House-holds was utilized to examine how the dissolution and formation of families was influence by egalitarian gender attitude among men and women. It was found that men with egalitarian attitude were less likely to go for divorce and more inclined to have children. In contrast women with egalitarian attitude towards gender are less inclined to have children. Single men with similar attitude towards gender are more inclined to engage in co-habitation.( GAYLE KAUFMAN. (2000). Do Gender Role Attitudes Matter?. Family Formation and Dissolution Among Traditional and Egalitarian Men and Women) Shu-Chuan Lai in his study of married Taiwanese men and women investigated how the quality of marital relationship was influenced by gender ideologies and orientations. He found that the quality of marriage was not directly influenced to a great extent by gender ideologies inn this particular case. However he found that egalitarian power sharing in marriage, directly and positively influenced the quality of marital life and resulted in harmonious marriage relationship.( Shu-Chuan Lai, Xiaohe Xu . Gender Ideologies, (2004) Marital Roles, and Marital Quality in Taiwan) Researches have indicated that being a man or a woman does not mean that they are at a risk of developing certain physical or mental ailments. However being men or women increases their susceptibility to specific types of ailment s and mental disorder. In both the cases of gender identification, masculinity and femininity, there are positive and negative variables involved. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation) For instance, greater gender identification with femininity cushions against negative masculinity trait like anti-social or violent behavior while predisposition one to adopt escapist or avoidant coping strategy. Excessive identification with masculinity predisposes on towards anti-social behavior while protecting one from avoidant coping strategy. Many current researches and studies hold the view that gender roles are constructed by human and hence there are no set of natural masculine or feminine traits. In fact both femininity and masculinity are a set of personality trait, which can be displayed by individuals of either sex. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation) Even males can have some amount do feminine traits. This is the reason why varying amount of prescription or adherence to gender roles can result in behavioral distinction among individuals even within the same sex. There have been changes in attitude towards gender and expectation of gender role. Flexibility or inflexibility of a society regarding gender roles can vary from culture to culture. A particular may or may not prescribe to the social expectation regarding his/her gender roles, but society tends to display its disapproval to non-adherence through various forced external social penalty. At the same time an individual who has a innate desire to adhere to the gender roles of the opposite sex may suffer mental trauma, and from feelings of guilt or shame. Thus any incongruence between the socially prescribed gender roles or those leant in childhood can result in gender role conflict which can produce many mental ailments. Further researches have brought to the forefront that knowledge about gender roles can enable better and effective treatment of ailments for both sexes. Women generally avoid treatment or shy away from it because of lack of transportation, resources, or because of the time they have to spend away from various child care responsibilities and duties. Males may not look for treatment because seeking help is not contrary to their image of masculinity. Thus treatment center and therapist should be sensitive to these issues and provide gender specific treatment option. A treatment center enhances accessibility to treatment for women by providing recourses like transportation. Similarly for men a less invasive treatment option can be adopted. For example while treating mental disorder in men a therapist can focus less on emotion and more on problem solving through cognitive means. A balance between the gender roles of masculinity and femininity rather then strict gender identification equips one with better and more flexible coping strategies. Thus a non-traditional form of gender role orientation incorporates the positive traits of both gender orientations. Society, Gender role formation and health Impacts Gender roles present their impact on various aspects of life like self- evaluation, accessibility to resources, expectation from self and from others, manner of interaction with others and coping with stress. All these in turn can influence the physical and mental health in a negative or positive manner. In conventional terms male gender roles or masculinity is associated strength, power, and control in occupational, emotional, family as well as sexual field. A man is expected to be aggressive, competitive, independent, ambitious, and even violent and angry to a different extent depending on the kind of society and environment. Any display characteristic associated with femininity, like emotional vulnerability, expressiveness, display of affection, is considered as a weakness. Feminine characteristic or gender roles are conventionally associated with supportive and nurturing role. Females are expected to ascribe greater priority to their relationship rather then personal advancement. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. enotes.com.) They are expected to be emotional, dependent, passive, affectionate, and cooperative and accept a status of subordination in all aspects of life. Displaying any behavior, which is contrary to these traditionally defined roles, is seen as unbecoming of a woman. Gender role distinctions have persisted through the various stages of human history. Evolutionary theorists have traced the genesis of gender roles to the physiological distinction inherent in males and females, which set and ascribed the gender roles so as to utilize their best function for their existence and survival. In the primitive form of societies men due to their physical strength went in for hunting and fought to protect their families. Women had the ability to give birth and nurture children and too up other physically less demanding and yet significant roles like preparing food, taking care of family. With the successive evolution of society men took up more and more physically demanding labor out side the domain of family in the public domain, while women were relegated to the private domain performing less physically demanding roles. With the emergence of the concept of moneymen gained financial independence, which was ascribed greater value, along with physical independence. Women came to be ascribed a subservient a dependent image and were. Carol Gilligan a psychologists in 1980s introduced the notion that conventional feminine roles is of great value and is in no way inferior, rather are merely distinct from masculine trait. These roles opera rated in lines of ethic of caring, nurturing and relatedness. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. enotes.com) Earlier psychoanalytical theorist Freud had suggested that a man’s role was superior to women. In his theories he had stated that girls felt a sense of inferiority and inadequacy when they saw the absence of penis. Boys in turn felt superior due to this distinction of genital. In 1985 Daniel Sterns theory of development suggested that human beings evolve from unconnected ness (masculine trait) to more complex forms of interpersonal connectedness (feminine trait). (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. enotes.com) He suggested that feminine traits are more evolved and hence better. More recent gender studies are not concerned with setting up any kind of superiority between the two gender roles. It has been accepted that gender role are a result of social constructs and are not determined biologically and therefore an artificial human construction. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. enotes.com) It is through the process of socialization that the transmissions of culture, social expectation as well as gender roles are learnt and passed on to the successive generations. Children develop gender identity and gender roles through observation. This enables them to find out which roles are acceptable or not acceptable for their sex. Peers and caregivers often shame violation or deviation from gender roles. Thus a particular type of gender role specific to that sex becomes internalized and guide future behaviors. The father may shame a boy playing with a doll. Gender role prescriptions may lead most individuals to select a car as a gift for a boy and a doll as a gift for a girl. A man who cries or displays his emotion is considered weak like a female. Similarly an ambitious career oriented women who ascribes more importance to her career is looked down upon in society or considered too intimidating for the male members. She may not be able to form any satisfying personal relationship with male members in the society as do not consider her womanly. In the recent times women gender role expectations have become more diverse and demanding putting a lot of strain on women and their health. A woman is expected to be a wife, mother, a homemaker and when ever the need arises, an employee and a caregiver to her family including the elders in it. Women even those who are highly qualified are often faced with the dilemma of giving priority to their family or to their jobs and career. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation) A women’s work in the house is often under valued and un- appreciated. Despite the potential she does not have much of scope within her household circumstances to engage in personally rewarding and creative work. Thus she craves for a more satisfying work options outside. However women in comparison to men are given very little independence in the job scenario, and they come across resistance at work place due the fact that traditionally men are preferred in the hierarchical structures. Studies have revealed that women tend to be paid poorly in comparison to their male counterparts even while performing the same jobs. Even working women, who work as much as their male counterparts shoulder the bulk of household responsibilities. Arah Rosenfield states that women shoulder 66% more of household work; get one and half hours of less sleep and work an approximate of one extra month every year in comparison to health. (Gender issues in mental health . 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation) Apart from this the expectation and pressure of family and self to perform the entire task properly put a lot of strain on women. As a result of all this their mental and physical health suffers. Various other causes of stress in women are a result of gender expectation and these include, fear of victimization, inability to be assertive and physical unattractiveness. Traditionally a woman is expected to look beautiful, have a good figure and complexion. These may lead a woman to put unrealistic demands on herself while compromising her health. Women are more likely then males to suffer from internalized disorders resulting in depression, sleep problems, guilt, self-reproach, decrease in energy, and problems with appetite. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation) Women may adopt different healthy or unhealthy coping strategy specific to their gender. For example gossiping with friends or shopping Speers are major mood elevators. Among men circumstances that give rise to stress are feelings of inadequacy result from any challenge to their formed self identity. In cases where the self identity of males is very similar to the traditionally pesticide gender role in that society they will feel stress when faced with situations like having to display emotion , facing a female superior, in ability to perform according to expectation regarding sex, work or an other situation. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation) Men who adhere very strictly to traditional gender roles are at a greater risk of suffering from health problems especially at a time when gender roles are slowly becoming blurred. The new cosmopolitan man is one who takes care of his look, doesn’t hesitate to show his emotions and cry, and doesn’t feel shame in helping in domestic chose. Such a man has a better chance for survival and maintenance of mental and physical well being in this faced paced changing world. According to Jose Abreu Latino American males have an extremely overstated masculinity or machismo. (Gender issues in mental health. 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation )The European American and African American also display machismo but to a lesser degree. It was found that African Americans are most egalitarian concerning gender role in comparison to the other two. Males can try to cope with stress either by trying to take control of the problem or by putting up a tough front and by engaging in physical activities. (Gender issues in mental health . 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation) Dependence on drug or alcohol is negative coping strategies men engage in. There are no particular research studies regarding problem solving coping strategy in which males and females engage in. Men are more likely to experience externalized disorder resulting from inability to cope. While females may experience internal and negative emotions in case of failure to cope men are more likely to engage in negative manifested external behavior, like drug abuse, and violent behavior(Gender issues in mental health . 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation) A social view of health is based on Jakarta declaration (1997) and World Health Organization’s Ottawa Charter (1986). (Gender and Health) As a result of the Ottawa Charter a new perspective on health emerged where the new public health thinking that emphasizes on equally regarding health, community participation, along with cooperation from service providers and enhancement in ecological management. While biological distinctions between sex and its impact on health related issues is a natural occurrence, gender distinction and discrimination between the two sexes sex and its impact on health is a result of societal and family expectation, cultural roles , constraints and expectation. (Gender and Health) Gender discrimination and its resulting impact on health is not a natural phenomenon but rather perpetrated by specific society or culture as consequence of distinct role expectation, and constraint. Ethically individuals should not be treated different along any parameter, not even along the parameter of sex. But the fact remains that men and women are treated distinctly within similar ethnic, cultural, religious, and age group. Discrimination among men and women in the social and family environment can result in different degree of exposure to the risk factors regarding health; it can effect the social and subjective perception and experience of diseases; it can effect the comprehension and accessibility to information concerning disease control, management and prevention; it can effect the patterns of usage of services; lead to distinct perception of health care quality ; it can also influence the attitude of the family and individual towards significance and maintenance of personal health. (Gender and Health) If health policies and programs seek to provide equity regarding health for both the sexes then should be geared to address the gender distinctions among women and men and its influence on health while formulating any health policy or program. According to Gwebalibatya Noeline, Uganda, youths who have had no formal education or who are dropouts are more likely to form families and have children much earlier than those who are in the educational system. (E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007) Early parenthood will have repercussion both on the mental and physical health. This will expose different sexes to distinct health risks. In many societies and communities milieu, girls are not allowed to pursue formal education. They are trained in the art of household, and expected to help their mothers. This is also a form of preparation for their life after marriage. In such social and cultural environment there is a pressure on parents to get their daughters married off at an early age and sometimes even in childhood. In such cultures a girl’s prospect for marriage is better at an early age. (E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007)Early marriage among girls results in early child birth. Such societal constraint and expectation regarding gender and gender role puts an enormous pressure on both the maternal and child’s health. Early maternity increases health risks, for both the child and mother through out the course of pregnancy, at and after birth for the child, as well as through out the reproductive period for the mother. According to Irina Iurcisin (Moldova) that it is not possible to point out which exact age is ideal for marriage, as every choice is influenced by ground realities. (E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007) In spite of this she points out that the age of Twenty two is perhaps the one most close to the perfect age of marriage. Michel Denis Richard who represents the l'Agence Intergouvernementale de la Francophonie states that poverty and illiteracy are the two major factors that affect the function and life of a family and a particular community. (E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007) Poverty as well as illiteracy can be one of the major reasons behind parent’s choice to marry their girls off early, so that they may receive dowry or they may be able to shift the responsibility of taking care of an individual or child onto another family. The culture of arranged marriage and forced marriage, due to religious and traditional beliefs and values are some of the other culprits behind early marriage of girls. Early marriage inhibits the opportunity of youth to form sustainable and safe families latter on in life. (E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007) Most societies are patriarchal in structure. A woman has to leave her family and join that of her husband after marriage. This weakens the position of women both within the family and the society. The offspring of marriage belong to the father’s family. Thus in poor communities spending on the education of a girl is considered as a waste of resource. Non- availability of education at early age also stifles of chances of gaining any economic independence latter in life and contributing financially to the family. Economic dependency further weakens the woman’s position and status. A son is or has potential of being the bread earner and hence is ascribed a better status in the family and society while a daughters or mother, or daughter-in-laws contribution to the family is undervalued. Discrimination stem from financial, social, religious and cultural factors. (E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007)Some simple examples of discrimination are out line below. A man is given the best cloths to wear, the healthiest food to eat and has a right to the best the family has to offer. If the family eats two meals per day the major portions are given to men. If the family has two glasses of milk, one is given to the father and the other is given to the son. A woman’s nutritional no health requirement is repeatedly compromised from a very early age. The practice of female infanticide is a direct statement of preference for a male progeny rather then a female. A women and even a girl remains marginalized and vulnerable to all kinds of discrimination right from birth and at time even before birth. In some cultures a women is treated as an object meant satisfying a man's needs. She is treated as an object of sex, for producing children or taking care of the family. Objectification of women has many repercussions. (E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007)Women and their contribution to society are not respected and their position is compromised. In terms of physical strength a women is considered as weaker to man. Objectification of women, a dominant patriarchal mentality along with a lower status in society, makes women the victims of various circumstances. They become victims of sexual perversion and abuse perpetrated by men in the family and society. A woman in Pakistan is raped by men from higher class community in her village because her brother runs away with a girl from the higher class. There are instances of rape victims being advised even by panchayat (community courts) to marry the rapist in order to safe herself from social stigma, ostracization and shame. Better penetration of education especially among girls can be an effective tool at curbing these gender inequalities, bringing about changes in attitude towards women and enhance the status of women in society. (E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007) With time certain changes have been creeping into the society and this has affected the gender role formation. Family and gender role formation Children learn about the gender stereotypes and roles first from their immediate family environment. The gender roles which are perpetrated by the family are not necessarily unbiased and egalitarian; in fact it is quite the contrary inmost cases. The attitude and behavior are learnt by children in families and homes and then reinforced latter by various elements of the society, like peer group experiences, schools and television. A child is exposed to gender roles typical to his/her sex first by parents who pass them directly and overtly as well as indirectly and covertly. According to Martin, Wood, & Little, 1990, since parents and family have such a significant role to play in gender role orientation it is beneficial fro the child if parents develop non-traditional and androgynous gender role identification. Boy grow up with the notion that they can fair better in math’s in comparison to girls and girls come to accept they are most suited for nurturing gender roles.( Susan D. Witt.( 1997).Parental Influence on Children's Socialization to Gender Roles) Santrock, 1994 reiterates the view that gender role orientation and development is internalized by the child through, “parent-child interactions, role modeling, reinforcement for desired behaviors, and parental approval or disapproval”. Lauer & Lauer, 1994; Santrock, 1994; Kaplan, 1991; reinstate that the child’s first experience and exposure to gender identities emanates from parents. From the time of birth it self the training to develop gender identity and stereotypes starts, and girls and boys are treated differently. For example, a female infant is dressed up in particular color of dress. From their studies Rubin, Provenzano, & Luria, 1974 concluded that parents have expectation from their male or female progeny as early as twenty-four hours following birth. Fagot, Leinbach, & O'Boyle, 1992; Cowan & Hoffman, 1986, found in their study that gender stereotypes are utilized by children a small as two and a half years old in order to manipulate and negotiate in their little worlds. These gender stereotypes are likely to be applied to various objects, activities and even occupation latter on in life. Sheldon, 1990 found in his study that children can even reject and deny the existence of realities which confront their under standing of gender roles. For example a child who sees women with short hair considers her to be a man. Steinbacher & Holmes in Basow, (1992, p. 129) found out that in many parts of the world parents have a clear preference for boys. Such parents are more likely to use medical technology to get pregnancy outcomes favorable to them. Hoffman, 1977 found that parents with such preference are more likely to engage in procreation following the birth of a girl child. He also found that women who preferred sons wanted the son to carry forward the family name, to make their husbands happy, due to family pressure and also to get a companion for their husband. Eccles, Jacobs, & Harold, 1990 found that parents often engage in pushing children or encouraging them to take up gender specific (stereotyped) activities. Pomerleau, Bolduc, Malcuit, & Cossette, 1990 found in their study that a girl rooms had more of dolls, pink color, and manipulative toys including tea sets, cooking toys. Sedney, 1987; Spence & Helmreich, 1980 in their studies found that in families where parents adopt non-traditional role have been found to have parents who show greater support, warmth and inculcate values of achievement in both children’s. (Susan D. Witt.( 1997).Parental Influence on Children's Socialization to Gender Roles) Reference Abreu, Jose M., et al.. "Ethnic Belonging and Traditional Masculinity Ideology Among African Americans, European Americans, and Latinos." Psychology of Men and Masculinity 1, no. 2 (2000): 75-86. Bird, C. E., and Rieker, P. P. (1999). "Gender Matters: An Integrated Model for Understanding Men's and Women's Health." Social Sciences and Medicine 48:745-755. E-discussion: Summary of Week 4. (2006). World Development Report 2007: Development and the Next Generation. The world Bank Group. Moderators' Summary of E-discussion The Transition to Family Formation. Online data retrieved on 14th September 2006, available at http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTWDRS/EXTWDR2007/0,,contentMDK:20729950~pagePK:64167689~piPK:64167673~theSitePK:1489834,00.html Efthim, Paul W., Maureen E. Kenny, and James R. Mahalik. "Gender Role Stress in relation to Shame, Guilt, and Externalization." Journal of Counseling and Development 79, no. (2001): 430-438. Gender and Health, Online data retrieved on 14th September 2006, available at http://www.whv.org.au/health_policy/gender.htm Gender issues in mental health . 2006. Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson corporation. Online data retrieved on 14th September 2006, available at http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Gender-issues-in-mental-health.html Gender issues in mental health. 2006. enotes.com. Online data retrieved on 14th September 2006, available at http://health.enotes.com/mental-disorders-encyclopedia/gender-issues-mental-health Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982. KAUFMAN GAYLE. (2000). Do Gender Role Attitudes Matter?.Family Formation and Dissolution Among Traditional and Egalitarian Men and Women. Journal of Family Issues. Sage publication. Davidson College, , Vol. 21, No. 1, 128-44. Online data retrieved on 14th September 2006, available at http://jfi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/21/1/128 O'Neil, James M. "Assessing Men's Gender Role Conflict." In Problem Solving Strategies and Interventions for Men in Conflict, edited by Dwight Moore and Fred Leafgrean. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association, 1990. Rosenfield, Sarah. "Gender and Mental Health: Do Women Have More Psychopathology, Men More, or Both the Same (and Why)?" In A Handbook for the Study of Mental Health, edited by Allan V. Horwitz and Teresa L. Scheid. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Shu-Chuan Lai, Xiaohe Xu . Gender Ideologies, (2004)Marital Roles, and Marital Quality in Taiwan . Journal of Family Issues. Sage publication .Fo-Guang University. Vol. 25, No. 3, 318-355. Online data retrieved on 14th September 2006, available at http://jfi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/25/3/318 Suarez Virgil.( February 2000). HISPANIC AMERICAN LITERATURE: DIVERGENCE AND COMMONALITY. IIP E-Journals. U.S. Society & Values. http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itsv/0200/ijse/latino1.htm Utomo J.Ariane. (September 15, 2004). Romanticising the gender wage gap in modern Indonesia:Old themes and new ideas in labour market expectations. The Australian National University. Online data retrieved on 14th September 2006, available at http//:iussu2005.princeton.edu/download.axpx?submissionID=51585#search=%22Romanticising%20the%20gender%20wage%20gap%20in%20modern%20indonesia%3AOld%20theme%20and%20new%20ideas%20in%labour%market%20expectation%22 Witt. D.Susan ( 1997).Parental Influence on Children's Socialization to Gender Roles. University of Akron. Online data retrieved on 14th September 2006, available at http://gozips.uakron.edu/~susan8/parinf.htm Read More