How Social and Psychological Factors Influence a Specific Aspect of Health - Coursework Example

How social and psychological factors influence a specific aspect of health Introduction Provision of healthcare requires an explicit understanding of how human being function especially when they are healthy. In this essay, I will discuss smoking an aspect of human health. Smoking compromises the human immune system, this makes smokers more likely to have respiratory complications. Additionally, smoking doubles the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis (Borrelli, 2014). Smoking can be used to illustrate fundamental sociological issues of the users (Sheaff 2005). Smoking has been argued to cause health complications which in turn causes serious sociological implications (Sundmacher, 2012). Sundmacher argues that in the European Union alone, smoking causes over half a million deaths annually. Smoking pose a threat to the health of pregnant women. Although women smokers are likely to quit smoking during pregnancy, majority go back to in less than one year after giving birth (Kahn et. al., 2002). Elsewhere, evidence gathered from a case-controlled study suggest that smoking could be protective against Alzheimer's disease (Broe et. al., 1998). Broe et. al. continues to argue that smoking has no net gain in the aspect of cognitive functioning. Such an assertion can be because, there exist evidence linking smoking as a risk factor for development of vascular dementia. In addition, smoking has been associated with prevalence of lower weight. Reduced tobacco usage is undeniably an important public health goal. The reason behind this is, smoking has been strongly related to health complications and premature mortality. On the other hand, smoking cessation has been linked to weight gain. Reduced prevalence of smoking cases have been suggested as one the risk factor associated with obesity (Flegal, 2007). A rational model of addiction developed by Becker and Murphy offers insights on why people engage in potentially addictive behaviours of smoking. Social factors that affect the health of human beings Gender is my first social element of choice that affect the health. Gender can be expressed as the social distinctions between men and women. Although they tend to get sick more than men, women have been argued to live on average five years longer compared to men. They are reported to have more non-fatal chronic illness and more acute illness (Waldron, 1994). Women have higher rates of depression, and this exposes them to use more depression medication. Compares to men, women are more likely to develop high blood pressure and kidney complications. Disease such as rheumatoid arthritis is more prevalent in women because of the limited activity associated with them as compared to men. According to O’Leary and Helgeson (1997) women are more likely to be prevented by finances from engaging in healthier lifestyles as compared to men. Though preventable, smoking by has been established as a one of the leading cause of morbidity and premature mortality. Smoking by women of reproductive age is likely to influence both the health of the woman and that of the child. Consequences of smoking while pregnant includes premature delivery and stillbirth in addition to and low birth weight. Smoking has been reported to cause constriction of blood vessel, and this affects oxygen supply to the foetus which has a devastating effect on its growth and development. Additionally, children born to mothers who smoked during pregnancy are likely to experience learning disorders attributed to their relatively low intelligent quotients, and behavioural problems. Women have been reported to use smoking as a way of reducing or helping them deal with stress. Graham (1993)reported child care responsibilities borne by women as a motivating factor for them to smoke. Men, on the other hand, are reported to have higher rates of fatal illnesses. This aspect can be attributed to the fact that they have a more toxic occupational exposure that includes injuries (Walsh et. al., 1995). Men are less likely to seek consultation from medical practitioners, they are more likely to resist attempts to be hospitalised. Men have been socialised to behaviour that exposes them to riskier lifestyles. They are likely to smoke and drink more than women. The behaviour exposes them to health complications that may end up making then die younger experiencing a more violent death. Men who smoke tends to be heavier smokers and more nicotine dependent than women, this explains the reason for men having greater success in quitting smoking as compared to women. Men tend to smoke more cigarette that contains an enormous amount of nicotine and tar when compared to women (Reddy et al. 1992). The second social factor that affects health is age. Better health care around the world is reaping the benefit of an increased life expectancy. In dealing with age as an aspect of health, I intend to focus on adolescents and teenager. Newson (2007) asserts that the health of adolescents is usually neglected by the primary care providers because of the believe that teenagers are a healthy group. Evans (1995) argued that teenager's behaviours and perception regarding health should be of interest, this is because they tend to be carried on in adulthood. There is a needed to bring teenage perspective regarding health in line with the goals of a healthy lifestyle. Evans attributed most teenage behavioural choices to the level of acceptance among the peers. Teenage boys are more likely to engage in unhealthy eating habit when compared to girls of the same age. The habits can be attributed to the high value teenage girls attached to physical appearance . Elsewhere, teenage girls are reported to be more concerned about engaging in safer sex compared to boys. Girls are said to exhibit a more positive attitude toward using condoms when than boys. Young men have issues with the condoms' effect on sexual sensation and overall pleasure. Smoking as a behaviour is mostly initiated during the period of adolescent (Morabia et. al., 2002). Richards et. at. argued that smoking initiation in teenagers is possibly mediated by cognitive ability (2003). Elsewhere, according to a study by Strong and Eftychia, teenage smoking is strongly influenced by friends and family. The study reported that, approximately ten percent of adolescent smokers were given their first cigarette by a friend while sixty-seven percent reported receiving their first cigarette from a relative (2006). The information from this survey is quite surprising considering that the family members and relatives are the ones supposed to teach good behaviour to the teenagers. There are many factors that can motivate teenagers to smoke. According to Khurshid and Ansari (2012) smoking can be tied to psychological reasons, for instance, personality impact, peer group pressure and acceptance, and weight consciousness amongst others. Smoking could be either for style and at times become a valuable tool that helps them to deal with stress, attention disorders or traumas of life. Teenager may engage in experimental smoking, and this may end up being carried forward to become a regular behaviour later in life. Smith-Simone et.al. (2008) found that effects of smoking to be drastic and relating to particular problems especially for young smokers. For instance, the risk of brain haemorrhage is estimated to be six times higher in teenage smokers than non-smokers, additionally, asthma is worsened by cigarette smoking. Adolescent smokers will report persistent health problems, mostly asthma or allergic symptoms, and this is noticeable especially in girls who smoke. Psychological Factor that affects human health Psychological factor that affects human health includes, attitude, prejudice, cognition, memory, aggression. I will discuss the cognition as my first psychological factor. Healthy cognitive abilities is a significant aspect of the modern dynamic society. Attention and memory are given a premium, they enable us to keep up with the changing technology and the increased information availability. There are factors accounting for increased prevalent of mental health conditions among individuals with mental retardation. They include brain dysfunction, family-related stress, psychosocial adversity, and stress related to the condition. Children who exhibit below average cognitive abilities are at a higher risk of developing mental health complications later in life. The assertion is true when compared to their counterparts with Intelligent Quotients of above 80 (Chuan-Yu et. al., 2006). Chuan-Yu et. al. argued that limited family interaction for children with borderline mental retardation is likely to compound the risks of emotional or behavioural challenges. According to Richards et. al., smoking is linked to faster declines in verbal memory with smoker reported to exhibit decreasing visual search speeds (2003). They continue to argue that smoking has a direct adverse effect on the central nervous system. As well, smoking has been identified as the risk factor for leukoaraiosis, perfusional decline, and cerebral atrophy. Nicotine acts by stimulating the central nervous system, and this affects neurotransmitters associated with anxiety and feeling of well being. This can explain why smokers have more cases of clinical anxiety as compared to non-smokers. Smokers who survive to later life are at risk of developing cognitive decline. It is worth noting that, studies have reported smoking as a protective factor against Alzheimer disease (Nooyens, 2008). The protective aspect can be attributed to the effects of nicotine as a stimulant. Wang (2010) in an article published in the Wall Street Journal argued that smoking could be a deterrent factor for Parkinson's disease syndrome. Memory is my second Psychological Factor that affects human health. Human survival depends on our ability to recall ourselves and others, the past that we have experienced, the things that we classify as dangerous, and many other things. Accurate and precise perceptions of the self, the future, and of the world forms are an essential aspect of mental health of an individual. Overly positive self-evaluations, unrealistic optimism, and perceptions of control are all characteristic of ordinary human thoughts. They promote aspect of mental health such as the ability to settle down and engage in productive and creative activities and the ability to be happy and at ease. It is worth noting that, studies have reported smoking as a protective factor against Alzheimer disease (Nooyens, 2008). Such an aspect can be explained by the effects of nicotine which is a stimulant. Wang (2010) in an article published in the Wall Street Journal argued that smoking could be a deterrent factor against Parkinson's disease syndrome. He asserted that, nicotine can boost and improve attention following periods of chronic and acute administration. Clinically, nicotine is being evaluated for incorporation in treatment of cognitive impairment. A study by Park et al.(2000) found nicotine to impairs spatial working memory, and this was illustrated by delayed response to stimuli and tasks in smoker. Interestingly, delayed response performance is closely associated with the well being of the cortex. Even though, nicotine impaired spatial memory, and it was observed not to have any effect on the spatial selective attention. Conclusion Evidently, the negative health implication of smoking are enormous. Smoking has been linked to cardiovascular complications. Tar found in cigarette has an adverse effect on human teeth and lungs. Smoking causes the constriction of blood vessels, and this has been pointed to interfere with the supply of oxygen to vital body organs. Additionally, constriction of blood vessels causes limited blood flow to the brain a factor closely associated with stroke. Although there are studies linking nicotine to enhanced cognitive function (Wang, 2010), it should be noted that such benefit comes at the risk of other harmful effects. Nicotine is mostly injected into the human bodies through smoking which negatively affects the performance of the lungs. For athletes, smoking has a detrimental effect on their performance, and this can be attributed to the negative impact it poses on the lung affecting the overall supply of oxygen throughout the body. Initially, cigarette smoking was socially associated with being 'cool' but with increased access to information, it is now associated with ignorance. Smokers should note that, cigarette smoking is not only detrimental to their personal health, but also to the health of those close to them. There is the need for the primary caregiver, especially parents to teach young one good behaviours relating to smoking. The least that parent can do is be good role models and teach their young ones through example, by not engaging in smoking themselves (Strong and Eftychia 2006). Governments need to realise that, the amount of revenues collected in form of taxes from sales of tobacco product is subtle compared to the amount of resources required to treat smoking related complications. References BORRELLI, B., BUSCH, A. and DUNSIGER, S., 2014. Cigarette Smoking Among Adults With Mobility Impairments: A US Population-Based Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 104(10), pp. 1943-9. BROE, G.A., CREASEY, H., JORM, A.F., BENNETT, H.P. and AL, E., 1998. Health habits and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in old age: A prospective study on the effects of exercise, smoking and alcohol consumption. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 22(5), pp. 621-623. CHUAN-YU, C., LAWLOR, J.P., DUGGAN, A.K., HARDY, J.B. and EATON, W.W., 2006. Mild Cognitive Impairment in Early Life and Mental Health Problems in Adulthood. American Journal of Public Health, 96(10), pp. 1772-8. CLÉMENT, F., BELLEVILLE, S., BÉLANGER, S. and CHASSÉ, V., 2009. Personality and Psychological Health in Persons with Mild Cognitive Impairment. Canadian Journal on Aging, 28(2), pp. 147-56 EVANS, N., GILPIN, E., FARKAS, A.J., SHENASSA, E. and PIERCE, J.P., 1995. Adolescents' perceptions of their peers' health norms. American Journal of Public Health, 85(8), pp. 1064-9. FLEGAL, K.M., 2007. The Effects of Changes in Smoking Prevalence on Obesity Prevalence in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 97(8), pp. 1510-4. GRAHAM, H., 1993 When Life's a Drag: Women, Smoking and Disadvantage. London, England: Dept of Health; Her Majesty's Stationery Office KAHN, R.S., CERTAIN, L. and WHITAKER, R.C., 2002. A re-examination of smoking before, during, and after pregnancy. American Journal of Public Health, 92(11), pp. 1801-8. KHURSHID, F. and ANSARI, U., 2012. Causes of smoking habit among the teenagers. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research In Business, 3(9), pp. 848-855. MORABIA, A., COSTANZA, M.C., BERNSTEIN, M.S. and JEAN-CHARLES RIELLE, 2002. Ages at initiation of cigarette smoking and quit attempts among women: A generation effect. American Journal of Public Health, 92(1), pp. 71-4. NEWSON, L., 2007. Teenage health problems. GP, , pp. 42. NOOYENS, A.C.J., M.SC, VAN GELDER, BOUKJE M, PHD and VERSCHUREN, W.M.M., 2008. Smoking and Cognitive Decline Among Middle-Aged Men and Women: The Doetinchem Cohort Study. American Journal of Public Health, 98(12), pp. 2244-50. PARK, S., KNOPICK, C., MCGURK, S., and MELTZER, H.Y., 2000. Nicotine impairs spatial working memory while leaving spatial attention intact. Neuropsychopharmacology 22, 200–209. RICHARDS, M., JARVIS, M.J., THOMPSON, N. and WADSWORTH, M.E.J., 2003. Cigarette smoking and cognitive decline in midlife: Evidence from a prospective birth cohort study. American Journal of Public Health, 93(6), pp. 994-8. SIDHU, N.S., 2004. The role of cognitive ability in the health-education nexus, University of Calgary (Canada). SUNDMACHER, L., 2012. The effect of health shocks on smoking and obesity. The European Journal of Health Economics : HEPAC, 13(4), pp. 451-60. SMITH-SIMONE, S., MAZIAK, W., WARD, K.D., and EISSENBERG, T., 2008. Waterpipe tobacco smoking: Knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. American Journal of Public Health 10(2): 3 93-3 98. STRONG, C.A. and EFTYCHIA, S., 2006. The influence of family and friends on teenage smoking in Greece: some preliminary findings. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 24(2), pp. 119-126. WANG, S.S., 2010. Health & Wellness: Smoking in Your 50s, 60s Increases Risk of Dementia. Wall Street Journal. ISSN 00999660. Read More