Theoretical Models of Leadership and Personal Reflection - Essay Example

 There are three distinct styles of leadership that will dictate the level of interactivity with health care employees, the structure of rewards systems established based on employee performance, or whether the leader seeks to become a role model or coach for nurses individually or in groups. These are transactional, transformational or laissez-faire leadership, each maintaining its own distinct characteristics and styles. “The primary concept of leadership is to facilitate and orchestrate team members with diverse skills and abilities, to achieve a worthy, common goal” (Schlosberg 2006, p.18). This paper describes the theoretical concepts of the aforementioned styles of leadership with emphasis on definitions and practices associated with each leadership system or activity. After providing knowledge of the theoretical applications of transactional, transformational and laissez-faire leadership and its relevancy to nursing and organisation, focus on real-world, personal attributes identified through research are described and summarily compared to the various theories of leadership. This paper consists of personal reflection of practice and the importance of leadership as it compares to actual nursing experience. The learning outcome is to identify personal strengths and weaknesses in practice and reflect on development as it pertains to leadership theory and best practice to improve nursing leadership skills. Transformational leadership is a liberalised style of leadership in which the individual attempts to role model best practice and behaviour in order to idealize motivation, commitment to achieving health care goals, trust-building and human capital development (Schlosberg 2006; Fairholm 2009) Transformational leadership requires the individual to be visionary, inspirational, a motivated teacher, and impart regular communications with nurses and other health care employees (Fairholm 2009). The ideological goal of transformational style is to build long-term trust with health care employees individually or in groups, using practice in-line with a more people-centred leader (Fairholm 2009). However, actual practice in nursing might dictate an incremental trust-building exercise to achieve long-term relationship growth. Starnes, et al. (2010) identifies that legitimate relationships are developed over time, beginning with small-scale acts and evolving into reciprocal acts with both employee and the leader. Trust is developed at the point in relationship where both leader and employee assume responsibility for development and growth in relationship by showing high affection and respect for one another through these acts (Starnes, et al 2010). Transformational leadership utilises collaborative methodologies in order to inspire commitment and motivation toward achievement of organisational goals, an idealized influence of role modelled behaviour that also seeks to inspire creativity and innovation in employees (Bass, et al. 2003). “Trust and distrust are embodied in the rules, roles and relations which some men impose on, or seek to get accepted by others” (Farrell and Knight 2003, p.67). Getting nurses and other health care staff (or even patients) to follow the direction of the transformational leader includes not only behaviours, but the systems and structures that guide either autonomous work or rules guiding behaviour by which the transformational leader abides as well to enact idealized influence. Does this mean having more controls to gain trust? Transactional leadership is a significantly different approach to leadership in which the manager creates contingent rewards that are based on individual employee or group performance (Antonakis, et al. 2003). This style includes the development of a psychological contract where the leader promises acknowledgement for proper performance or guarantees of leader non-intervention so long as work performance outputs are meeting expected organisational goals. Clear task discussion between leader and health care employee leads to understanding of expected rewards in transactional leadership (Antonakis, et al. 2003). Part of transactional leadership is what is referred to as management-by-exception, where the leader maintains a standoffish style, intervening or taking corrective action only when performance is inferior to contract (Antonakis, et al., 2003; Bass, et al. 2003). This would be supported by nursing theory proposed by Craven et al. (2013) suggesting that safety is one of the most dominant motivators. The autonomy provided by transactional leadership satisfies these needs, thus theoretically improving social belonging to gain nursing commitment. Laissez-Faire leadership is a more distanced leadership style in which the nursing leader maintains much fewer employee control systems, allowing employees to be autonomous and self-directed. The leader will typically not take any type of intervention or corrective action until mistakes have already occurred. It is essentially a complete absence of leadership (Bass et al. 2004; Goodnight 2004). From a rather top-down philosophy, the laissez-faire leader will often dictate the consequences for failures or non-compliance and then leave employees to manage their activities or group work (Goodnight 2004). The theoretical understanding of leadership seems to be having an understanding of how to build long-term trust and understanding which type of environment requires different leadership approaches, whether transformational, laissez-faire, or transactional. In nursing practice, leadership will either allow for autonomous working environments, establishing more controls by providing rewards based on performance, or building human capital through transformational style to motivate, inspire and allow creativity. Deming (2002) identifies that nearly all problems occurring in organisations are due to leadership failures. This author indicates that organisational leaders are responsible for 85 percent of all failures due to incompetency in developing trust, gaining loyalty, or building an effective team (Deming 2002). This is why health care organisations attempt to create balanced leaders rather than managers, to improve their competencies in developing team methodology, gaining organisational trust, and building a more effective organisational culture. Leaders cannot, under most theoretical models, utilise the traditional Theory X management concepts (and other models with more control systems) and expect to produce more qualified human capital and productivity outputs. As a nurse, my experiences have shown strong evidence in the importance in building competent leaders to avoid failures in team loyalty. No more evident for the importance of team development was during inter-disciplinary team meetings during the planning process of delivering patient care. Team members in the hospital often found considerable dissatisfaction with structured work demands and would resist change when leaders did not use transformational style to inspire or allow for creativity. Kouzes and Posner (2012) reaffirm that a leader must be credible to establish effective teams. It is important for a leader to reflect on models of exemplary leadership, which includes inspiring a shared vision (Kouzes and Posner 2012). I have found that resistance to change occurs without credibility and vision iteration, which is more in-line with transformational theory. Grieves (2010, p.8) offers that change is a “negotiated order” where internal stakeholders continuously attempt to exert influence on one another and organisational policy. The key word here is negotiated which indicates consultation, cooperation, and discussion with employee groups in order to gain commitment and lack of resistance to change occurring regularly in the organisation. An effective leader must be able to bargain or collaborate when change occurs, therefore they must establish characteristics to build trust, a stable democratic culture, inspire and build respect for leader and employees. Rewarding based on performance, or role modelling desired behaviours, or simply providing more autonomy can build a more negotiated system whereby leaders and employees have equal influence. Nursing reflection theory would somewhat disagree. Levin’s model recognises nursing as being a holistic approach to leadership based on integrity (both social and personal), with a reliance on structural systems to achieve communion with holistic wholeness (Schaefer, 2002). Transactional leadership relies on individual performance outcomes to achieve reward, which in reflective nursing theory does not represent a holistic approach to human development and thus might not be effective in practical nursing activity. Kouzes and Posner (2012) emphasize that exemplary leadership requires encouraging the heart to gain performance outcomes. In actual practice, the need for more transformational style is evident when dealing with care issues due to the complex emotional needs of the patient that is dependent on nursing staff to fulfil their basic hygiene needs. Transactional leadership would reward care outcomes if handled effectively, but does not consider the needs of patients in this environment. Job satisfaction is linked to positive productivity outputs. Satisfaction is built from the follower’s perceptions of a leader and the ability to work independently of management visibility and control (Emery and Barker 2007; Nguni et al. 2006). Satisfaction is also related to self-efficacy, how an individual measures their own competence levels to complete work. Self-efficacy is pattern of thought and emotions that increases when a leader begins to show confidence in the worker (Waldman and Spangler 1989). The Neuman model of practice reflection recognises a whole individual, this being psychological, sociological, and developmental under a systems-perspective view to gain commitment and motivation (Neuman and Reed, 2007). In the hospital, I have found that job satisfaction is a major predictor of positive job performance outcomes in the nursing team. Kouzes and Posner (2012) indicate exemplary leadership to be enabling others to act, which instils confidence in follower abilities. It is important, especially when dealing with complex patient needs, to show confidence in nursing skills and abilities to build a more effective worker. “Leaders who maintain ethics will demonstrate a higher presence of integrity that is critically important for creating a perception of leader trustworthiness” (Resick et al. 2006, p.346), in support for the Levin holistic model. Ethical leadership recognises the importance of trust-worthiness in gaining employee commitment to following a leader’s vision (Watts 2008; Bonner 2007; Greenburg 2004). Trust and ethical leadership are important constructs when reflecting on personal nursing practice since these are commitments to ensure patient needs are sustained and recognised. Kouzes and Posner (2012) identifies that exemplary leadership involves modelling the way and this is highly evident in the hospital when team members are looking for a credible and ethical leader. Without these factors in role modelling (ethics and trustworthiness), nursing staff often resist change when it is proposed by leaders who do not role model these behaviours. Having identified the theoretical applications and relevancy of transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership, as well as the importance of reflection in practice, it is necessary to undertake a personal evaluation and analysis of personal attributes related to these three styles. I participated in two different evaluations of leadership characteristics in order to gain effective knowledge of weaknesses and strengths associated with leadership. First, I presented an observing mentor a leadership questionnaire designed with 30 questions on the fundamental styles of leadership to determine observed scores in each of these categories. The leadership questionnaire is linked with elements of transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles. Secondly, I completed a career development assessment that maintained multiple questions in order to determine the level of characteristics found currently with me associated with the three aforementioned leadership styles. This assessment indicates which leadership characteristics as compared to transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership that are most applicable based on responses to questions provided. The results of these assessments are described in detail. The leadership questionnaire, mentor-generated, indicated a strong propensity toward transformational leadership style. I scored highly-above-average evaluations in relation to inspiring creativity and innovation, setting a personal example for others, vision-setting, and showing conviction. Fairholm (2009) identified these characteristics as being vital constructs in transformational leadership with an emphasis on inspiring vision, allowing others to expand their creative influence or ingenuity, and role modelling to achieve long-term trust. High scores were also achieved in characteristics traditionally found in transformational leadership such as asking for employee feedback, building consensus-based projects and systems, and also effectively communicating objectives whilst praising others for their accomplishments. Many of these high scores in characteristics most closely associated with transformational leadership are strengths, as they will lead to more follower commitment. Starnes et al. (2010) identified that authentic trust is built over time and that the reciprocal interactions between leader and employee are what build this trust. The observer/mentor identified these characteristics and these should be recognized as personal assets that will likely lead to better relationship development and trust in the leader to not only have the aptitude to achieve goals, but also the integrity to proverbially walk-the-walk and talk-the-talk when it relates to important role-modelling to gain commitment. In reflection to practice, I have found that leaders who do not promote the credibility and integrity offered by Kouzes and Posner (2012) are unable to promote change effectively without nursing staff resistance. A situation occurred during practice where a physician on staff had repeatedly been warned about their hygiene when working with wound management. Nurses were beginning to fear for patient health and safety, which led to long-term trust issues as it related to physician assessment of patient needs and handling care. I took the lead in bringing these issues to the attention of administration, which was highly visible to the nursing staff. These small acts, as identified by Starnes, et al. (2010) began to build trust and integrity, which also provided new opportunities to follow my lead through integrity and role modelling of ethics. The career development assessment also recognised significant strengths related to transformational leadership, with a score of 70 out of a possible 80 related to this style. The assessment indicated a very balanced blend of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. The theoretical understandings of transformational leadership had indicated that all of these dimensions should be included in transformational style including providing creativity and ingenuity outlets for employees, role modelling, inspiration and coaching (Bass 2003; Fairholm 2009). Many of these characteristics simply come naturally to me, and are strongly reinforced by the theoretical literature on transformational leadership in order to better develop their strengths and ability to apply them in real-world groups or organisations. Kouzes and Posner (2012) indicates that it is very important to speak to the heart of others and inspire. A situation occurred in nursing practice where one nurse was having trouble grasping learning outcomes which impacted their nursing activities. Over and over again, this particular nurse was being targeted for negative performance reviews and she was getting more and more frustrated because it seemed she had a learning comprehension problem and was not actually lacking motivation. I took the lead in this situation and began to rework the lessons provided in training to be more fitting to her personality style (it seemed to me that she learned more effectively through direct interventions and not written hand outs). By taking the time to inspire the nurse and make her familiar with the methods by which she comprehends best, I gained a long-term gratitude and following by speaking to the heart (Kouzes and Posner 2012) and illustrating integrity-based leadership. My strong propensity for transformational leadership will, as indicated by Resick et al. (2006), build a better perception of ethical leadership. This quality balance between the four different influences in transformational leadership will also build long-term trust in team members as proposed by Farrell and Knight (2003) as a means of gaining acceptance for the leader. Barrett (2011) identifies many important elements that must be present for a genuine democracy to exist, which is often demanded by employees seeking self-efficacy growth and autonomy. These include transparency, openness, freedom, equality and accountability. Having an understanding of the importance of role modelling, establishing legitimate negotiations throughout the employee interventions, and also being accountable for actions will ensure that employees perceive a more democratic environment where their feedback is recognising and acted upon when appropriate. Another situation occurred where this could be applied in the real-life hospital environment. Many structural components are not designed to be democratic and administration is not transparent in their dealings with nursing staff. When policies are simply dictated and there are no accountability systems from the administrative group in the event of policy failures, nurses begin to lose faith in their leadership abilities and will often reject change. The career development assessment also indicated a moderate leaning toward transactional leadership, one which rewards are contingent on performance, with a score of 44 out of a possible 80 points. This also includes management-by-exception where the leader is standoffish until a problem has been observed in the employee population. The leadership questionnaire with responses generated by the mentor indicated a lower score as it relates to developing cooperative relationships with employees I work with. One might think that a lower score in this area would be a weakness, since it seems to suggest less teamwork-focused thinking. However, it would provide significant benefit, having a standoffish attitude, in giving employees the autonomous working environments they demand. The establishment of cooperative relationships are not always appropriate in certain workplace situations and it has been identified by Den Hartog et al. (1999) that certain cultures generally do not appreciate highly authoritarian styles with rigid controls. I have found this to be legitimate and accurate in the hospital environment. In my home country, nursing staff like to work autonomously and do not find much satisfaction with collective working. Cooperation with physicians and administration builds more long-term dedication to meeting hospital goals and patient outcomes. Lack of cooperative working environments leads to medication errors and many other liabilities. Kramer and Tyler (1996) and Mayer, et al. (1995) identify that trust in the organisation is an overall willingness to show vulnerability and exists when the employees see the leader as proficient and dependable. I realised this from years of working in the hospital which is linked to Kouzes and Posner’s view of leading by the heart for exemplary practice. When physicians or nurses are willing to openly express their vulnerability, psycho-socially, they build more long-term partnerships. I think this is related to my home culture as it relates to collectivist values. I have found that vulnerability, such as openly expressing concern about patient care, builds a better platform for setting reward systems related to performance. Cultural values are defined as the internalized belief systems employees hold regarding what they perceive leaders should do (Ravlin et al. 2000). Autocratic leadership, with strong control systems, are usually only effective in military organisations or highly bureaucratic health care organisations (Goodnight 2004) and does not provide employees with motivation or willingness to trust leader direction. My balance between transactional and transformational leadership will ensure some controls are established whilst also providing for cultural development and, ultimately, job satisfaction and willingness to commit to projects and change objectives in the role of nurse. Maslow (1998) indicates the importance of building self-esteem in health care employees to help them achieve the same level of self-actualization that I currently feel about my own competency and capabilities. This is something that I need to find balance in and incorporate it into transformational style: a leniency and understanding that not everyone is as confident in their development and competency at the job role and must be effectively coached to attain a similar plateau. Ray et al. (2008) identifies in psychological theory that employees tend to ruminate, which is dwell on their shortcomings or shortcomings of others, as well as ponder mistakes repeatedly that can lead to lessened self-confidence. For instance, if the nurse perceives a problem with fair procedural justice, rumination will lead to negative organisational outcomes (Ferris et al. 1996). Self-esteem and procedural justice seem to go hand-in-hand in real-life practice. In the hospital, nurses like to be recognised when they accomplish goals and training outcomes successfully. They will often dwell on situations where they receive minor criticism which impacts their self-confidence. I have found that establishing a justice system that speaks to the heart (as provided by Kouzes and Posner), that nurses are more responsive to these criticisms and more willing to follow leader advice on improvement. Having identified the theoretical applications of the main types of leadership as well as strengths and weaknesses in main domains of leadership, it can be effectively determined that I am largely well-balanced with only moderate development needs. Roberts et al. (2006) identifies that individuals are capable of changing over time and will usually become more conscientious as it relates to their personality. 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