The Success of Apples iTunes Download Service and the iPod Developing - Literature review Example

 The evolution of the Internet model has produced significant downturns in CD sales and the global recorded music market is in steep decline and the empirical data demonstrates a continued trend in falling physical CD sales in significant major markets1. In contrast, the new digital business model has fuelled a sharp increase in digital sales, which whilst offsetting part of the decline in the physical CD sale market, has not managed to entirely redress the balance in stabilising sales2. It is evident that the recorded music sales are in steep decline and rising digital sales are offsetting in part the physical market decline, which could potentially offset part of the physical market by the end of this year, with analysts estimating the figure to be around $23 billion3. However, this is in stark contrast to the peak of $45 billion in 1997 and leading analysts Enders Analysis posit a negative forecast for global recorded music sales figure of 4.4% for the period of 2006-20124. Moreover, it is submitted that that the contemporary marketplace, the evolution of the internet business model has forced the music business in particular to rethink corporate marketing strategy and this is further highlighted by the proliferation of the multi-channel retailing paradigm as required retailers to “innovate” in order to maintain position in the marketplace5. On the other side of the spectrum, the digital revolution has resulted in multiple distribution streams, challenging pre-existing methods of information dissemination. In particular, the ability of file share online fuelled the peer to peer file sharing phenomenon. However, with regard to music, the rapid proliferation of illegal peer to peer file sharing (P2P) took the music industry’s traditional supply chain model as its primary victim in disseminating copyrighted works for free. The failure of the music industry to precipitate the Napster phenomenon and adapt its traditional business model has had significant repercussions in relation to the supply chain of the music industry unable to recover in its wake. Notwithstanding the growth of the legal online digital market, the post P2P era has significantly dented CD sale profits, which was primary earner under the traditional distribution model. The main recourse for the music industry has been to adopt a knee jerk approach in prosecuting and penalising illegal file sharing. However, the music industry’s approach to copyright protection and wanting an outright ban on P2P file sharing has been criticised for going too far against public freedom and consumer protection. Furthermore, critics of an absolute ban approach argue that such a measure ignores the wide applications of P2P file sharing in practice, some of which can be beneficial to the public. Additionally, the impact of the internet on consumer behaviour arguably presents novel opportunities for monetisation beyond the rigidity of the traditional supply chain model of the music industry. For example, the success of Apple’s iTunes download service has been attributed to the ability of Apple’s application of blue ocean marketing strategy in conjunction with the iPod to develop6. This further supports Chan-Kim & Mauborgne’s arguments that Apple ignored the “red ocean” by capitalising “on the desire of every music lover to download just the tunes they want in the instant way they want them”7. This observation of Chan-Kin and Mauborgne further correlates to the arguments pertaining to the economics of demand in the music supply chain as highlighted by the market share battle between Apple’s iTunes and the traditional supply chain model of Major Record labels. This paper critically evaluates the effect of the internet on the supply chain of the music industry and further suggests that whilst the need protect the economic value of copyright should not be underestimated; a compromise needs to be reached to preserve public freedom and exploit the changing trends in music purchasing in the digital era. Moreover, it is submitted as a central proposition in this paper that in addition to the problems posed to the supply chain model in the music business by illegal downloads; another central causal factor is the changing nature of consumer behaviour which is increasingly dictating economic success particularly in entertainment consumption8. Indeed, the correlation between globalisation and the digital revolution has fundamentally altered the traditional retail business paradigm. As such, it is evident that the proliferation of the Internet and e-commerce business model has played a vital role in reshaping marketing and distribution channels in retail companies, thereby reformulating the nature of supply and demand.9 Additionally, it is submitted that segmentation of the traditional marketplace has become increasingly shaped by consumer trends, which has pressed the need to integrate customer relationship management as part of business growth strategy. This in turn has created a novel marketplace, where the consumer is effectively the market, thereby creating novel business opportunities10. A concomitant result of this is that the evolution of the Internet business model has significantly impacted the traditional supply chain model of music distribution and produced significant downturns in CD sales. Additionally, the global recorded music market is in steep decline and the empirical data demonstrates a continued trend in falling physical CD sales in significant major markets11. In contrast, the new digital business model has fuelled a sharp increase in digital sales, which whilst offsetting part of the decline in the physical CD sale market, has not managed to entirely redress the balance in stabilising sales partly as a result of illegal file sharing; which raises interesting questions about the output of the music industry in impacting consumer behaviour (Enders Analysis Report, 2008). Indeed, Kusek highlights the point that the format changes in music distribution as a result of MP3 files have fuelled multiple distribution channels for music, including free music sharing12. As such, Kusek comments that “CDs are being replaced by MP3 files and the only problem is the record labels never figured out a way to charge for MP3 files until it was too late”13. Therefore, it is arguable that internet piracy and the increased legal illegal CD burning and “digital disintermediation of CD sales is triggering a perfect storm for the specialist retailers that used to dominate music sales”14. As such, Reisman posits that illegal file sharing is “one of the major policy formulation, industrial management, and law enforcement issues of this decade. It includes industrial espionage, the piracy of software, logos and hardware”15. Therefore, it is submitted that the whilst the traditional supply chain model of the music industry has undoubtedly been reshaped by the internet business model; the crux of the debate in relation to the future monetisation of music lies in the appropriate method of exploiting internet distribution channels and changing consumer behaviour whilst protecting copyright particularly in light of the file sharing phenomenon. Indeed, the legal conundrum regarding efficiency of copyright as a means to protect recorded music in the digital arena has confounded industry and legal experts as to the appropriate medium to bolster copyright protection online. On one side of the argument as regards the entertainment industry, Kusek blames the music industry and argues that “it is a format change, and the record industry had its change when Napster first came out. They had the chance to license Napster for all their music….. if they had done that, I believe the recorded music industry would be in a much more healthy state than it is today, or ever will be again”. 16 Additionally, the aftermath of Napster in 1999 created panic and hostility to P2P file sharing17. However, the panic of the worldwide recording industry (motivated by fears of loss of economic control of major labels and revenues) ignored the wider facets of file sharing, which can be considered from various viewpoints18. Instead, “previous research on the phenomenon has been overly focused on the policy and rules to regulate infringing use of the technology,19”which has arguably harmed major labels for failing to change their business structures.20 However, it is commented that this emphasis ignores lawful applications of file sharing, which in turn can have a negative impact on the legitimate development of P2P as a technology and indeed social interests.21 Moreover, this arguably ignores the demand issue at the crux of the success of the music industry business model in the increasingly competitive entertainment marketplace ( ). For example, as highlighted above, the internet’s central impact on the supply chain model in the music industry has been the proliferation of the file sharing phenomenon. The practice of P2P file sharing has created controversy as a result of the significant income downturns suffered by the music industry. Indeed, the 2004 Pew Internet Project and Comscore Media Metrix Data Project “the state of music downloading and file sharing online22” highlighted that in a national phone survey of 1,371 adult internet users in March 2004, it was evidenced that the number of people downloading music files had increased “from an estimated 18 million to 23 million since the Project’s November-December 2003 survey”23. Nevertheless, the Project did demonstrate that inroads had been made into illegal P2P file sharing as a result of the Recording Industry Association of America’s proactive stance against illegal downloading24. For example, the Project refers to the research of Nielsen Ratings in September 2003 that file sharing usage had reduced and that a decline was evident in July “when unique visitors to KaZaA, Morpheus and iMesh all dropped by roughly 15% immediately following the announcement of the RIAA lawsuits”. As a result, visitors to such applications continued to decline throughout the summer and by “September there had been a total of 41% plunge in traffic to the KaZaa application alone”. Additionally, the survey stated that 18% of Internet users stated that they downloaded music files and the Pew project demonstrates that approximately a third of the individuals that downloaded, stated that they used peer to peer networks. Interestingly, in considering the use of legitimate music file downloading sites, the Pew Research project results comments that: “while only music services like iTunes are far from trumping the popularity of file sharing networks, 17% of current music downloaders say they are using these paid services. Overall, 7% of Internet users say they have bought music at these new services at one time or another, including 3% who currently use paid services25”. Additionally, notwithstanding the uptake of iTunes, the Project’s results demonstrated that most users were responding to prosecutions in curbing illegal P2P downloading and were generally indifferent to copyright and 58% stated that they did not care about copyright26. Moreover, Schmidt et al highlight that the: “War on music-file sharing shows two contesting sides. On the one hand we see an industry that keeps suing in defence of its copyrights…… stooping to the level where its legal arrows are aimed at its own customers…… on the other hand, we see a “community” employ peer-to-peer communication services that become more and more intractable to authorities and that consequently become more attractive for criminal use27”. This problem is further compounded by the fact that even after the “economic feasibility” test evidenced by Napster’s popularity, there remains a distinct lack of legitimate P2P music file sharing distribution services in the current marketplace28. It is further submitted however that a consideration of an appropriate model in encompassing P2P is vital, particularly as a result of the integration of globalisation on the socio-cultural landscape. Indeed, Subramanian and Goodman assert that “once we truly understand peer to peer, we will find that the reality exceeds the hype”29. Alternatively, even within the music industry, Noam questions whether the declining CD sales can be solely attributed to the file sharing phenomenon. To this end Noam poses the question “is there a clear theoretical prediction for such a phenomenon? The causality between file-sharing and record sales is not clear30”. For example, on the one hand the downloading impact clearly creates a substitution effect. Additionally, reference should be made to the sampling effect; which is “the possibility of learning from file-sharing about music users would not otherwise be exposed to”31. To this end, Noam refers expressly to the arguments of Oberholzer and Strump, who posit that “File sharing lowers the price of music, which draws low evaluation individuals who would otherwise not have purchased albums. That is, file sharing primarily serves to increase total music consumption32”. Therefore, the sampling effect of downloading can actually decrease sales and therefore to this end, there is no theoretical framework for the effect of file sharing on CD sales33”. Alternatively, Liebowitz’s research suggests that the data overwhelmingly points to file sharing as the cause of the decline of CD sales in the 1999-2003 period34. Additionally, Noam highlights how “there is no relationship between the number of downloads of a particular album and the actual sales of the album itself, i.e., file sharing does not reduce record sales. Furthermore, most people who shared files appear to individuals who would not have bought the album that they downloaded and the more popular CDs seem to benefit from file sharing35”. As such, whilst there is clearly a correlation, Noam argues that the results are ultimately inconclusive and focus should be shifted from non-commercial file sharing to “the business potential that Peer to Peer applications may have with regard to the digital delivery of services for new business models and the legal distribution of music and other applications”36 AGAIN REITERATES THE DEMAND POINT. As a result, it is arguable that P2P is too important as a technology to impose an outright prohibition on and therefore “it needs to be understood and exploited for its merits, while policy makes work through the legal and societal issues”37. Moreover, failure to do so could arguably result in ignoring the possibilities of P2P in practice as the “reality is that we have yet to discover the ramifications of P2P computing – the maturity of peer systems, the proliferation of P2P applications and the continually evolving P2P concepts are new”38. It is submitted that central to this is a balanced approach to the economic impact of P2P file sharing. It is submitted that perhaps categorisation of industry needs to be adopted in considering the impact of P2P file sharing to address possible models of usage going forward. Moreover, as highlighted above, the evolution of the Internet model has produced significant downturns in CD sales and the global recorded music market is in steep decline and the empirical data demonstrates a continued trend in falling physical CD sales in significant major markets39. In contrast, the new digital business model has fuelled a sharp increase in digital sales, which whilst offsetting part of the decline in the physical CD sale market, has not managed to entirely redress the balance in stabilising sales40. It is also evident that the recorded music sales are in steep decline and rising digital sales are offsetting in part the physical market decline, which could potentially offset part of the physical market by the end of this year, with analysts estimating the figure to be around $23 billion41. However, this is in stark contrast to the peak of $45 billion in 1997 and leading analysts Enders Analysis posit a negative forecast for global recorded music sales figure of 4.4% for the period of 2006-201242. Furthermore, it is submitted that that the contemporary marketplace, the evolution of the internet business model has forced the music business in particular to rethink corporate marketing strategy and this is further highlighted by the proliferation of the multi-channel retailing paradigm as required retailers to “innovate” in order to maintain position in the marketplace43. As such, it is submitted that blue ocean strategy is arguably essential to survival of the music industry business model in providing the foundation of dynamism in line with Schumpeter’s theory that the evolution and sustainability of a successful business model is not dependant on how capitalism administers existing models, but rather with how it destroys them through creativity to survive long term growth44. This is further highlighted by statistical data pertaining to P2P file sharing usage. For example, a study conducted by Frank N. Magid Associates indicated that “the P2P user attends 34% more movies in theatres, purchases 34% more DVDs and rents 24% more movies than the average Internet user”45. Additionally, this is evidenced by the statistical data collected by Frank N. Magid Associates in Figure 1, which charts online P2P usage of entertainment multimedia formats in proportion to purchasing uptake: Figure 1: Source: Business Insider (2009). Chart of the Day P2P File Stealers Spend a Ton on Media. August 25, 2009 at www.businessinsider.com February 2010. This therefore refutes the assumption P2P file sharing has killed the media industry and technology companies per se, which in turn negates arguments for outright bans on P2P technology in practice. Alternatively, the recent statistics suggest that a central problem in combating economic loss from P2P file sharing is the failure of archaic business models, which need to be adapted. Therefore, on this basis it is arguable that to a degree the incoming of the second media age and multiple digital platforms has clearly created new societal trends and business opportunities through the multimedia business model46. Additionally, this new internet business model has distinctly altered the way that companies view strategy, with a distinct shift from product focused strategy to customer relationship management, which is highlighted by the consumer driven digital download market47. In turn, the Internet alters the geographical limitations on markets and Schmidt et al comment that “how market processes and outcomes are influenced by geographic issues certainly changes, due to the Internet”48. To this end, Chan Kim & Mauborgne argued that blue ocean strategy is vital in the contemporary business paradigm by not competing in the existing market space and create an uncontested market space. Furthermore, the essence of the blue ocean strategy is that focus on competition is incorrect and it is necessary to create a new demand and that as such, the company’s systemic approach will be underpinned by differentiation and low cost49. Additionally Chan highlight the need to create new markets in marketing strategy as opposed to focusing on competition50. Indeed, if we look at the central gatekeepers and obstacles to traditional music publishing it is evident that the dissemination of information enables peer to peer file sharing and the “digital format allows consumers to cherry-pick” the tracks they really want, instead of forcing them to buy whole albums, and to combine these songs into playlists”51. Moreover, the proliferation of fixed line mobile commerce has further fuelled the growth of digital music and legitimate downloading formats into the mainstream52. As such, these “software, hardware and communications technologies of the Internet age are at the root of both the industry’s ills and of its hopes”53. Indeed, a prime example is the initial focus of the music industry on legal action against P2P file sharing and refusal to licence to own schemes as opposed to re-evaluating the traditional business format. It is arguably this failure to address the challenges of the digitisation of the music industry that has contributed to the current problems facing traditional income streams in publishing54. Nevertheless, whilst the iPod and the iTunes are prime examples of the blue ocean approach and the success is testament to increased digital consumption of music, the “the industry has pinned its hopes for top line recovery on sales of digital downloads”55. However, the reality is that digital sales per se “cannot replicate library renewal and building that sustained the music industry’s top line surge throughout the 1990s and 1990s after the CD was introduced”56. Moreover, Enders Analysis highlights how the back catalogue for “long tail” sales of digitised masters have so far largely failed to materialise as a major driver for demand of digital music57. As such, whilst the success of the iPod and iTunes demonstrates exploitation and creation of a new blue ocean in marketing terms, its current dominance highlights the “limiting factor to the development of the market for digital downloads” (Enders Analysis Report, 2008) which in turn has shaped our business strategy formulation outside the parameters of an obvious entry point within the contemporary framework of the business. This is further supported by Enders Analysis’ assertion of the following key reasons for the inherent limitation of the digital download market: 1) Sales of iPods inherently motivate iTunes sales, which is evidenced by Apple’s pricing model and therefore squeezes out other competitors by the digital rights management applied by Apple58; 2) Without significant competitors in the market, digital downloads sales may effectively mature in the by 2012, “running their course with the sales curve of iPods and similar devices”;59 3) Failure to challenge and alter Apple’s iTunes set pricing model, will result in the lack of necessary stimulus for “long tail” sales through pricing initiatives60. This is further compounded by the lack of sufficient evidence to indicate that mobile music commerce will address the shortfall, which further highlighted the need for to adopt a lateral approach in considering the possible use of P2P technology in business models as part of the consideration of satisfactory solutions to the current problems. To this end, it is submitted that whilst the exploitation of the internet model business model cannot be discounted, it is necessary as a publisher in the digital era to establish, create and secure copyrights and license such copyrights to the marketplace and thereby create multiple revenue streams61. A prime example of such a model is Universal’s licensing of its masters to YouTube from which receives licence fees from advertising revenue when users create personal spaces using Universal recordings (Enders Analysis Report, 2008). Additionally, Universal has agreed a deal for a $1 levy on each sale of the Microsoft Zune player62. Accordingly, this further highlights a central point in the debate on P2P file sharing namely, the rights of consumers versus the rights of creators. Arguably the e-commerce business model has revolutionised consumption through the multi-channel retail format, resulting in increased consumer power. Indeed, in the 2007 House of Commons Report “New Media and the creative Industries: fifth report of session 2006-07 Volume 1: Report together with formal minutes63” it was highlighted that “a revolution is underway not just in the way in which we watch television programmes but in the way we listen to music, gather all news information and use all forms of creative content”64. As such, this has challenged “all elements of the delivery chain, from creators themselves….to consumers.”65In turn this has brought the conflict of consumer rights versus copyright protection to the fore through the growth of P2P file sharing. For example, Rimmer highlights the point that increasing consumer empowerment has undermined copyright protection66. In supporting this proposition, Rimmer refers expressly to the work of pro-consumer Electronic Frontier Foundation, which describes itself as follows: “From the internet to the iPod, technologies are transforming our society and empowering us as speakers, citizens, creators and consumers….. From the beginning, EFF has championed the public interest in very critical battle affecting digital rights”67. Nevertheless, it is submitted that whilst consumer empowerment is undoubtedly a welcome result of the digital revolution; it is important to acknowledge the economic value of copyright to creators. This is recognised by the House of Commons report, which highlights the need to reach a balance between consumer rights and copyright protection. To this end, the House of Commons report asserts that “despite the ability of creators to access new markets and develop new forms of media, the importance of that content in helping to drive the development of new technology models does not necessarily translate to economic value.”68 This in turn raises the issue as to whether economics should influence copyright policy making in relation to the negative economic impact of illegal P2P file sharing. From an economic perspective, the underlying rationale for copyright protection is exclusivity in return for investment. Therefore the whole process of illegal P2P file sharing of copyrighted work gives copyists a “free ride on the innovator’s first copy costs69” as a result of which creators cannot recoup investment costs. A prime example of failure to recoup such costs is the example of iTunes and falling CD sales referred to above. In essence, Kusek highlights the bleak reality for many recording artists that “the entire history of iTunes is equivalent to a couple of months of downloaded shared music”70. Moreover, Kusek refers to Forrester Research statistics indicating that by 2013, digital music will comprise 41per cent of the music market, however the reality is that despite this growth, the download market will not “compensate for the decline in CD sales, leaving the overall music market shrinking by a compound annual growth rate of 0.8 per cent, to $9.8 billion in 2013”71. Therefore, the overall result of the music industry’s failure to initially deal with P2P technology as a potential business tool has arguably left it too late for the traditional music industry business format to recover from the after effects of illegal P2P file sharing. To this end, Bhattacharjee et al argue that “in the post P2P ere, we find significantly reduced chart survival”72. This further supports the business strategy of moving away from the traditional CD sales market particularly as coupled with physical market decline, retailed CD prices have seen a sharp downturn, further compounded by the bankruptcies of Tower, Wherehouse Music Inc, Musicland and Zavvi, which “reducing the footfall that spurs CD sales and lucrative back-catalogue sales in particular”73. In contrast, alternative retail channels such as Amazon are on the rise, but the overall shelf life for the physical CD market is extremely precarious74. Kusek therefore refers to the possibility of a blanket licence approach as a completely new music business model on grounds that the traditional album sale formula will eventually become defunct75. However, Battacharjee et al argue that whilst illegal P2P file sharing has severely dented CD sales, the actual process of file sharing “does not seem to hurt the survival of albums”76. In any event, it is submitted that an economic approach regarding business exploitation and alteration of traditional business models must be given consideration to maintain the economic investment incentive underlying intellectual protection. To this end, it is submitted that serious consideration needs to be given to pre-existing legal mechanisms for protection BIBLIOGRAPHY Eric Beall (2003). Making Music Make Money: An Insider’s Guide to Becoming Your Own Publisher. Berklee Press. Sudip Bhattacharjee, R. D., Kaveepan Lertwachara, James R. Marsden, and Rahul Telang. (October 2005). The Effect of P2P File Sharing on Music Markets: A Survival Analysis of Albums on Ranking Charts. NET Institute Working Paper (05-26). The Business Insider (2009). Chart of the Day P2P File Stealers Spend a Ton on Media. August 25, 2009 at www.businessinsider.com accessed February 2010 W Chan Kim & Mauborgne, R. (2005). 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