An Examination of New Musicology - Essay Example

?Introduction Benjamin Britten was an opera composer of the modern age. Because he lived in the modern age, there has been a range of interpretationsthat musicologists have taken towards his work. The range of interpretations depend mainly upon whether the musicologist who analyzing his work is an example of a new musicologist or an old musicologist. New musicologists essentially are focused upon the meaning of the work (Eyerman & McCormick, 2006, p. 2). New musicologists may derive meaning from examining the composer himself, discerning what a particular composer may have meant by his work by examining the life of the composer in search of clues (Seymour, 2004, p. 1). They may also derive meaning by applying other disciplines to the work, such as literature, religion, philosophy and psychology (Zolberg, 1990, p. 8). They may derive meaning by associating the work with a body of studies, such as gender studies or queer studies. They may apply sociology to the work in an effort to discern the work’s meaning (Brett & Britten, 1993, p. 633). Or, they may use a combination of the above to arrive at what the meaning is. New musicologists may be compared with old musicologists. For them, new musicology is a corrupting influence in that, by applying other disciplines, the inherent musicality of a particular piece is lost (Miles, 1995, p. 12). Old musicologists analyze work by using musical theory, and may be formalistic or positivistic in their approach to composer’s work (Agawu, 1997, p. 299). What they do not do is attempt to discern hidden meanings behind the composer’s work. The shift from old musicology to new musicology can be traced to Joseph Kerman (1985), whose book Contemplating Music: Challenges to Musicology, was the first instance where a musicologist proposed analyzing music by bringing in history, communication, the existence of other works of art, affects, texts and programmes (Kerman, 1985, p. 18). Since then, prominent musicologists such as Susan McClary and Philip Brett have analyzed music from the perspective of gender and queer studies, respectively (McClary, 1993; Brett, 1993). These scholars represent the tip of the iceberg for new musicologists, but they are examples of how new musicology approaches music. This paper will consist of an examination of new musicology and compare it to old musicology. Then, the next section will examine how new musicologists see the works of Britten by examining some of the themes that are inherent in his work, themes that have been teased out by prominent new musicologists. The next section will handle how old musicologists examine Britten’s work. Finally, the last section will be a conclusion which ties together the concepts and analyzes what it all means. New Musicologists Approach to Britten’s Work A new musicologist would not analyze Britten’s operas in a superficial way – such stating the innocent themes of a certain opera, without going into subtext – but would also go beyond what is on the surface and delve not only into Britten’s psyche but also the sociological mores of the times to determine what the true meaning is behind the operas that he has written. For instance, Seymour (2004) state that if one examines a Britten opera, there are a number of superficial themes, but that, if one looks closer at Britten’s operas one can see that he is trying to find a voice that “might embody, communicate, and perhaps resolve, his private concerns and anxieties” (Seymour, 2004, p. 1). Seymour was a definitive new musicologist, as she attempted to examine several operas written by Britten – Paul Bunyon, Death in Venice, three of his church parables and several of his children’s operas – and analyzed these creatively by linking them to psychological factors and biographical events that were occurring with Britten during this period of time (Seymour, 2004, p. 1). It was Seymour’s theory that Britten, through his music, was able to express ideas about his sexuality and identity that were difficult for him to come to terms with and unable to confront. Therefore, his music was a sort of “therapy,” much like keeping a journal, except, for Seymour, this “journal” took the form of a production that would be consumed by the masses (Seymour, 2004, p. 2). Her work was no doubt influenced by Philip Brett, who was the first to ascertain homosexual themes in Britten’s music, which opened the door for new musicologists to expound upon these themes, as he was the first to tease homosexual themes in his groundbreaking essay Britten and Grimes (Brett, 1983, p. 187). There are a number of themes that have been extrapolated from Britten’s operas by new musicologists. Below are just a few of these themes. Homosexuality One of the themes that were underlying Britten music was that of homosexuality. Homosexuals have long sought the arts to express themselves when society would not accept them being open, as one could express homosexual themes in a type of code. Thus, if one tells the “secret” of their homosexuality, then that secret is lost, as it is now public. But if one puts this “secret” into operatic form, the “secret” is still a secret, because, while the opera expresses about the secret, it is in code (Seymour, 2004, p. 12). Seymour found evidence of a homosexual code in Peter Grimes – an example of the score is below. Grimes is based upon the story of a man who ostensibly murdered a young boy, Crabbe, who was Grimes’ apprentice. Grimes is persecuted in the town because of the story of the boy. Seymour sees this as evidence that society was oppressing Grimes, which is allegorical to the oppression experienced by homosexuals (Seymour, 2004, p. 43). Philip Brett (1983) concurs with this analysis. For Brett, Peter Grimes is persecuted not because he committed a crime, but because he was different, and, what made Grimes different, according to Brett, is that Grimes was a homosexual (Brett, 1983, p. 187). Brett believes that Britten put on a happy face for his Britons, because he was accepted by the aristocracy and honoured by them. At the same time, homosexuality was not tolerated by the Britain of this time, so the aristocracy really did not accept Britten for himself – only his artistic merits. Therefore, Britten distrusted British society, even though the society needed him to perform for them, and Britten needed their approval as well. It was through the character of Peter Grimes that Britten was able to mediate this conflict and come to terms with this, according to Brett (Brett, 1983, p. 189). Cooke (1999) expounded on this theme, explaining that Britten and Auden were “court poets for a society they disliked” and that they could not tell the truth because of society’s censure on their lifestyle. Therefore, they embedded their messages about their homosexuality in their text, which was their way of being subversive while coming to terms with their homosexuality and society’s cruelty towards it (Cooke, 1999, pp. 51-52). Seymour also saw evidence that Britten was somewhat sadistic to young boys. Noting that Britten was attracted to young boys, perhaps because he was raped by a schoolmaster, Britten also had a sadistic streak that he no doubt felt constrained to display in life. Therefore, in the character of Peter Grimes, Britten writes Grimes as being cruel towards the boy, which was an expression of his own cruelty that he could not display in life (Seymour, 2004, p. 51). Otherness Another of the themes that is explored by Britten in his operas are his feelings of isolation and otherness. Seymour states that Britten’s early opera Paul Bunyon was an exploration of this theme, even if it was done in rudimentary form. According to Seymour, Paul Bunyon explored how a community comes together to build a new world, which means accepting one another’s difference and choices, as well as protecting the outsider from the community and the outside world (Seymour, 2004, p. 22). This is shown by Britten’s old trees, who have to accept it when odd things occur that alters their pattern of life. To this, the old trees respond that, while they don’t like the changes, there is no point in complaining about them because there is nothing they can do about it (Seymour, 2004, p. 22). And, in Peter Grimes, Seymour theorizes that Peter was persecuted more because he was different from the surrounding community than the fact that he might have murdered a young boy. This reinforces that Britten was feeling alienated and like an other, so he voiced this alienation and otherness in the person of Peter (Seymour, 2004, p. 74). This interpretation is echoed by Philip Brett who states that “Peter Grimes is about a man who is persecuted because he is different” (Brett, 1983, p. 187). Britten also felt like an “other” in America, in that he did not feel comfortable in America and found America “narrow…self-satisfied, so chauvinistic, so superficial, so reactionary & above all so ugly” (Seymour, 2004, p. 33). W.H. Auden, the who wrote the libretto for Paul Bunyon, attempted to address Britten’s feeling of isolation in his adopted homeland of America, by writing the verses “Every day America’s destroyed and re-created, America is what you do, America is I and you, America is what you choose to make it” (Seymour, 2004, p. 33). Seymour theorized that those lines, written by Auden, were designed to give voice to how Britten felt about America, while reassuring him that America is what he made it. If Britten felt that America was hostile and unwelcoming, and had the attitude regarding this, then America would be so. If Britten could change his attitude about America, however, it would be more welcoming and Britten could feel less of an outsider (Seymour, 2004, p. 33). Orientalism Orientalism, as a modern term, was coined by Edward Said in his 1978 book Orientalism. According to Said, the Western representations of the Orient are filtered through a Western bias, however subtle, and these representations are also a product of power. Since the West has dominated the Orient through the ages, the interpretation of the Orient is disseminated through the countries in power – Great Britain and other Western countries (Said, 1978, p. 60). This denotes a kind of racism that may either be subtle or overt. Such stereotypes as Middle Eastern individuals being terrorists, and the Chinese resembling Charlie Chan would be overt racism. Said’s work clearly influenced new musicologists, as Said encouraged works being viewed through the prisms of ideology and politics, as this is necessary to understand the biases that accompany them and perhaps come to a better understanding of the work. As Curthoys & Ganguly (2007) state – “music criticism is unavoidably political” (Curthoys & Ganguly, 2007, p. 206), and this is the concept that was introduced by Edward Said in relation to orientalism. As for subtle racism, it can be argued that Benjamin Britten was guilty of this when he Anglicized oriental stories, such as the stories that were the basis for Curlew River and Prince of Pagodas. No doubt Britten did not see it that way - that these pieces were racist - but the fact of the matter is that these were oriental stories filtered through Britten’s Western sensibilities about what the stories were trying to say. Britten became interested in orientalism when he visited Japan in the late 1950s and he was exposed to a type of play in Japan known as the No play. This is a play that is decidedly of the Far East, and seemed esoteric to Britten and his companion on the trip, William Plomer. The play centered around ancient Buddhist rituals, chanting and symbolism. Britten found the No plays to be “among the greatest theatrical experiences of my life…the deep solemnity and selflessness of the acting, the perfect shaping of the drama, coupled with the strength and universality of the stories are something which every artist can learn from” (Seymour, 2004, p. 244). However, it turns out that Britten was not necessarily fascinated with the mystery and ritual of the Japanese No play, but, rather, its dramatic conventions, and called it Curlew River. Britten, after a matter of years after having visited Japan, took one of the stories that he learned over in Japan and Christianized it. The story is about a woman who is driven mad with grief, who crosses a river, and sees a vision of her son, which relieves her of grief. The story is based upon a Japanese story, Sumidagawa, and, while it retained some elements of the original Japanese version, by keeping some of the Buddhist references, its framework was based upon Christian plays (Seymour, 2004, p. 248). Specifically, the framework was derived from English mystery plays or medieval morality plays. As for the music, Britten used a scheme that was not traditionally Eastern, nor Western, but, rather, defied characterization. The length of the bars changed freely throughout the piece, and the performers had different tempo indications. This allowed harmonies, melodies and rhythms that were varying to occur simultaneously (Yale Recital Chorus 2004, p. 6). The music in Curlew River thus was a contrast of ideas that do not build into a progression, but are, rather, layered on top of one another, which means that there is no overarching harmonic structure. Rather, each character has a certain harmony that is exemplified by pitches or a set of pitches, and, as each character interacts, a new musical idea unfolds (Yale Recital Chorus, 2004, p. 8). Thus, Britten, while borrowing the ideas from an Eastern story, did not also borrow musical tenets from the genre. Rather, his score for Curlew River was unique, and did not represent either Eastern or Western music. Below are examples of the score. As far as new musicologist interpretation of the music goes, Seymour sees Curlew River as being a kind of reverse of Peter Grimes. Where Peter Grimes focused upon the isolation and oppression of society against the protagonist of the opera, Curlew River focused upon a woman who was isolated in her own mind due to her madness, yet the community helps her to reintegrate. This is accomplished by the fact that the woman is allowed to cross by boat over a river, and, initially, she is not allowed on the boat, but she eventually is because the community on the boat feels sorry for her. It is through this action that the madwoman is brought to her son, which essentially heals her. Therefore she is, by extension, healed by the kindness of the community (Seymour, 2004, p. 249). Curiously, however, Seymour did not attempt to analyze Curlew River by stating that Britten was showing a bit of xenophobia when he created Curlew River. She simply commented that the endeavor became a Christian parable and left it at that, without analyzing the motivations that Britten might have for making it such. This is curious, because Seymour’s endeavor was to analyze Britten’s operas and compositions in attempt to show how the operas reflected Britten’s psyche, but she did not do that for Curlew River, relying instead on kind of an old musicology analysis of the Opera. However, Seymour did show her new musicology bent when she proclaimed that the Curlew River was made into a Christian Parable (Seymour, 2004, p. 248), therefore, her analysis brought the discipline of religion when analyzing the opera. This factor showed that Seymour’s analysis was not that of an old musicologist examining the play, but as a new musicologist, which is what Seymour represented. Likewise, another composition that was loosely based upon Britten’s experience in the Orient is The Prince of Pagodas. However, this story, which was made into a ballet by Britten, also does not retain much of its Japanese heritage, and the story really plays out much like Shakespeare’s King Lear (Britten & Cranko, 1956). The story of a good daughter who is ignored, while an evil daughter if revered by the father, while a prince is disguised as a salamander blends elements of King Lear and Beauty and the Beast, yet the score is based upon Balinese gamelan music. A seven-tone pelog is simulated, and the Salamander Prince theme is played by different instruments, in different keys, each starting in different times, in a layered texture. This technique is typical of Balinese gamelan music, and is known as polyphonic stratification. Below is an example of this technique (Cooke, 1998). Moreover, percussion instruments, such as cymbals, gongs, bells and xylophones play prominent roles in the musicality of the ballet, and much of the music is played among the pentatonic scale, which is typical of Oriental music (Cooke, 1998). Britten uses the Balinese music during much of the ballet, as the ballet is set in Pagoda land, which is a mythical land that is oriental in nature. However, at one point, the salamander turns into a prince, and, it is at this point that the music becomes much more Westernized (Cooke, 1998). Gender Gender studies is another discipline through which Britten’s work is examined. This theme will be explored through Britten’s work regarding Queen Elizabeth I, titled Gloriana. This opera was not a critical success, and Malloy (1993) state that the reason for this is because the character of the Queen was not well-drawn. There was difficulty in showing the Queen’s motivations and interior thoughts, because Britten kept the characterization of the Queen superficial (Malloy, 1993, p. 57). Thus, the characterization of the Queen was unsympathetic. This suggests that, at least for the character of the first Queen Elizabeth, Britten was unable to draw a full figure on the stage. Perhaps this was for different reasons – maybe he was afraid to put Elizabeth into a negative light, for fear that British society would turn on him. Or, perhaps, it was because Britten had difficulty forming female characters in his operas, because Britten identified much more with the male characters. This interpretation is bolstered by the fact that Britten major works - Billy Budd and Peter Grimes, are male-driven, and, even Britten’s major work, The Rape of Lucretia, was not exactly female-oriented. This is in spite of the fact that Lucretia had a female protagonist. The Rape of Lucretia centered around the rape of a beautiful young maiden named Lucretia; her rapist is Tarquinius, who is the son of an Etruscan King. Lucretia, shamed by what transpired, commits suicide (Seymour, 2004, p. 75). One interpretation of Lucretia is that the opera is simply another extension of the otherness theme explored by Peter Grimes and other operas by Britten, including Paul Bunyon, and how society is in conflict with the individual (Seymour, 2004, p. 78). This was one of the kinder interpretations. Other reviewers noted that the female in Lucretia was portrayed in a chauvinistic light, as essentially a “co-dependent unit,” and that women were inconstant (Seymour, 2004, p. 79). Mosley (2010) theorizes that Britten’s score utilized the note of “C” to denote both wakefulness and innocence. He also states that the C major was used by Britten to denote a dreamworld in which the female characters can express themselves in a way in which they are given a voice and not silenced by the patriarchy. This dream world is also one in which Lucretia seeks refuge. Moreover, the C major is used throughout the scenes before the rape, for this is when Lucretia and the other women in the opera could live in their dream world. After the rape, is the harsh reality of Lucretia’s situation, and the transition is heralded by a change in the key to the key of C sharp. C sharp thus denotes guilt, sin and remorse (Mosley, 2010, p. 26). Mosley also states that Britten’s women are subsumed by the tones of B and C, which are used to show the oppression of the female in this opera. After Lucretia dies, the tone is back to C sharp, which now denotes confusion (Mosley, 2010, p. 30). Thus, Mosley, as a new musicologist, teases out how Britten uses key changes to symbolize the change from hopefulness to oppression. Below is an example of the music from The Rape of Lucretia. Therefore, in two of Britten’s major operas that revolve around a woman, these women were not portrayed in the best light. Elizabeth I in Gloriana was portrayed superficially, without digging into her psyche, which made her seem one-dimensional and disappointed theater-goers. Lucretia in The Rape of Lucretia was portrayed, at least at first, as a helpless damsel in distress type character, and the story itself is misogynistic at its core, for the subject is the girl’s rape. Moreover, at least one interpretation of the Lucretia states that the themes are essentially the same as the ones in Peter Grimes, which was, of course, a male-driven endeavor. So, Lucretia was really just a re-working of Peter Grimes, only this time, the female is victimized instead of the male, the but the interpretation regarding oppression is just the same. That Britten seemed unable to draw a fully constructed woman for the stage is possibly symptomatic of the fact that Britten was secretly misogynistic at worst, clueless about women at best. Old Musicologists’ Approach to Britten’s Work Old musicologists see the works of Britten in a decidedly different light than do new musicologists. One such musicologist is Arnold Whittall, who is, in contrast to the above musicologists, decidedly from the old school of musicology, and this can be shown in his analysis of Peter Grimes. Whereas Seymour and Brett, both new musicologists, saw in Peter Grimes the underlying themes of otherness, oppression and how Britten felt being essentially an outcast in British Society, due to his homosexuality, Whittall in his analysis of the same, apparently sees none of that. Rather, Whittall takes the opera more or less on face value. Whittall states that Britten’s motivation for writing the opera was to express his oneness with the struggle that people feel when they make their living by the sea (Whittall, 1990, p. 96). Further, Whittall states that Peter Grimes’ central conflicts are between “security and respectability and his instinct to preserve his isolation by acts of cruelty and irrationality” (Whittall, 1990, p. 102). There is not an in-depth analysis of the deeper themes that are possibly present in the work, but, rather, an analysis that relies upon the text of the work, and how the libretto interacts with the music to create drama, conflict and character. There is not an attempt to tie the psyche of Britten in with the work; in Whittall’s analysis of Peter Grimes, Britten is curiously divorced from the work, as if Britten’s own issues did not drive the work at all, and that the work is nothing more than the re-telling of a story that has nothing to do with Britten’s personal life or feelings. This is in direct contrast to how both Seymour and Brett interpreted the work, which shows the contrast between old and new musicologists. Another example of an “old” musicologist, who did not put any stock into analyzing music according to what Britten might be thinking or feeling, or analyzing according to what is happening in Britten’s environment, or making an analysis according to literary or art themes etc., is John Evans. In his analysis of the The Turn of the Screw, he wrote about how Britten came to bring the composition to life, and it reads like a “making of” the composition. He goes “behind the scenes,” explaining that Britten was recovering from a bout of bursitis at the time he created the composition, and how this made the schedule tight, then went through how Britten composed the piece in pencil and worked with a manuscript. He went through details of how Britten went through drafts of the composition, how worked with others to build the composition, and so forth. But, not once, did he attempt to psychoanalyze the process, by stating Britten’s possible motivations for the different scenes that he created for the opera. He never applied any kind of analysis from literature, art, or any other discipline (Evans, 1985, pp. 63-70). Another example is Christopher Palmer, who also analyzed The Turn of the Screw. While Palmer acknowledged that the subtext of the opera is an implied homosexual relationship between two of the characters, Miles and Quint, and also acknowledged that Britten was attracted to authors whom were homosexual, there was never an acknowledgement that Britten, himself, was homosexual, and this would be why Britten would choose homosexual themes for his compositions. Palmer stated that Britten was attracted to the homosexual authors not in a sexual way, but, rather, that Britten chose the homosexual authors as inspiration for his compositions and operas. At the same time, Palmer attributes motivation for Henry James, the author of the The Turn of the Screw, stating that “Yet the recurring theme of sexual repression in James…argues a similar repression in James himself, amply documented by peers and contemporaries such as [Oscar] Wilde.” (Palmer, 1985, p. 103). There is no mention of Britten’s sexual orientation, nor is there an analysis of why Britten might have chosen the themes that he worked with in the opera, and, even though the opera is based upon a literary source, there is not an attempt to apply a literary analysis to the score or the libretto. The analysis sticks to musical themes and does not stray. Patricia Howard (1969) is another old musicologist who analyzed Peter Grimes. In keeping with the old musicology tenets, Howard does not mention underlying homosexual themes in the opera, but, rather, analyzes the opera in terms of the musical themes. She begins with the Prologue, which is described as a “through composed movement with a coda for Grimes and Ellen” (Howard, 1969, p. 6). The music in the prologue introduces the character of Swallow, as the busy opening four bars is what Grimes uses to symbolize this character. An example of the music from prologue is below. Howard then analyzes the structure of the opera. She states that music is divided into six orchestral interludes that alternate between expository and developmental. Interludes I, III, and V are composed of tonal pictures that represent the sea; Interludes II, IV and VI are developmental in that they describe Grimes’ character. Act I, Scene I, which is expository, consists of choruses that open and close the opera, and is described as a “long choral movement” (Howard, 1969, p. 8). An example is below. While the storm is what is represented in the music in the first scene, in the second scene, what is represented by the music is the storm within Grimes. The interval is in the minor 9th, not the major, and this is considered to be an ominous entrance (Howard, 1969, p. 13). The following portrays Grimes’ inner torment. At the same time, the crowd, afraid of Grimes, sings about their fear of Grimes: The third interlude evokes the sea, and the fourth is further development of Grimes’ character. Described by Howard as “unutterably sad,” Howard describes this interlude as “a set of nine variations on an eloquent viola theme – a decorated descending fifth – over a passacglia bass” (Howard, 1969, p. 19). It all builds to the final scene, in which Grimes has a mental breakdown, which is shown by fragments of D,F# and C chords on the horns, with a foghorn adding a E phrasing off to D, which “represents dramatically both the physical and mental confusion of the scene” (Howard, 1969, p. 22). The final interlude is shown below. Thus, Howard was able to evoke the major themes in the opera Peter Grimes by showing the relationship to the themes to the music. What she did not attempt to do, however, was to relate the music to the larger themes of otherness and homosexuality. This is what sets her analysis apart from the new musicologists, and is a perfect example of how an old musicologist analyzes an opera, in contrast with a new musicologist. Conclusion New musicology has advanced our understanding of musical works in many positive ways. New musicology recognizes that musical works are not created in a vacuum, but, rather, are a product of many different forces. Understanding a composer is essential to understanding his work, for the composer is the person who puts the notes to paper. What the composer is interested in will inform his work, and, understanding what a composer is interested in will also inform analysis of same. For instance, if a particular composer is interested in philosophy, then approaching his work by using the philosophy of Kant or Kierkegaard would assist in understanding what the composer was trying to say. In the case of Benjamin Britten, understanding what he was going through in his own life can go a long ways towards informing an analysis of his music. For instance, new musicologists note that Britten was homosexual, and, because of this, he felt like an outsider in society. That society pretended to accept him, but never really did accept him, due to the fact that he was homosexual and British society frowned upon this. Yet, British Society made him one of the most important composers, and he was practically a court composer. There was this tension, and Britten subtly layered homosexual themes into his work as a kind of protest for how he was treated, and, also, as a kind of therapy. The otherness, isolation and loneliness that is inherent in his work also stemmed from the feeling that society did not accept him. New musicologists recognize that Britten had certain feelings that informed his view of the world, and they recognize that these feelings also informed his composition. This has afforded the listener a richer understanding of what Britten was trying to say. This approach to musicology has implications for music in general, not just Britten. Having a true understanding of the forces that drive a musician to make music enables the audience to be able to derive meaning to music, and gives music a depth that would not be present otherwise. Where an old musicologist might hear a song by Sting, say, The King of Pain, and analyze the song strictly by the words, a new musicologist will seek to understand what Sting was really trying to say in the song by analyzing what drives Sting to write music and what drove him to specifically write that song. The new musicologist may note that Sting was fascinated with Jungian analysis, and approach his music by using the psychoanalysis advocated by Jung to uncover different layers of the music. While an old musicologist might analyze a song that was written during the Vietnam era by simply examining the words and music, a new musicologist will note that a lot was going on in the world during this time, and analyze the song accordingly. The old musicologist will come to a completely different interpretation than the new musicologist, simply because the new musicologist looks beyond the words to find the true meaning. This is what brings music to life, and gives music layers and depth that would not otherwise be present. This approach also makes music interesting for the masses. Sources Used Seymour, C. (2004) The Operas of Benjamin Britten. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press. Banks, P. (1993) Britten’s Gloriana: Essays and Sources. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press. Malloy, A. (1993) “Britten’s Major Set-Back? Aspects of the First Critical Response to Gloriana.” From Banks, P. (1993) Britten’s Gloriana: Essays and Sources. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press. Cooke, M. (1999) The Cambridge Companion to Benjamin Britten. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brett, P. (1983) Benjamin Britten: Peter Graves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brett, P. (1983) “Britten and Grimes.” From Benjamin Britten: Peter Graves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cooke, M. (1998) Britten and the Far East. New York: Boydell Press. Curthoys, N. & Ganguly, D. (2007) Edward Said: The Legacy of a Public Intellectual. Carlton: Melbourne University Press. Howard, P. (1969) The Operas of Benjamin Britten. New York: Praeger. Kerman, J. (1985) Contemplating Music: Challenges to Musicology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Mosley, I. (2010) “Poetry of Women, History of Men: The Role of Women and Gender in Benjamin Britten’s The Rape of Lucretia.” Available at: http://files.droplr.com/files/6434092/P57bZ.lucretia.pdf Whittall, A. (1990) The Music of Britten and Tippett. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eyerman, E. (2006) “Toward a Meaningful Sociology of the Arts” Myth, Meaning and Performance London: Paradigm Publishers. Said, E. (1978) Orientalism. New York: Vintage. Sherwood, S. (2006). “Seeker of the Sacred” Myth, Meaning and Performance London: Paradigm Publishers. Witkin, R. (1995) Art and Social Structure Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. Zolberg, V. (1990) Constructing a Sociology of the Arts. New York, NY: Prentiss Press. Kramer, L. (2003) “Musicology and Meaning.” Musical Times vol. 114, no. 1883, pp. 6-12. Miles, S. (1995) “Critics of Disenchantment.” Notes vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 11-30. Yale Recital Chorus (2004) “Benjamin Britten: Curlew River.” Available at: http://www.christopherhossfeld.com/text/curlewprogram.pdf Read More