Counter-Terrorism Strategies in Northern Ireland (IRA), and Spain (ETA) - Essay Example

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGY AND POLICY OF NORTHERN IRELAND (IRA) AND SPAIN (ETA) by Introduction History records that a majority of strategies regarding counter-terrorism, have been ineffectual. It has been deemed so because of the continued resurgence of conflicts spanning many years and decades, without amicable solutions by parties involved. As a result, nations entangled in such conflicts, have incurred enormous costs; in terms of human lives, lost opportunity, and resources. Thus, has been the need for a dynamic shift, by way of new approaches. To generally understand the nature conflicts i.e. terrorism, civil strife and general warfare, one ought to be informed of prevailing social contexts. This paper’s focus will be on the two nation states of Spain and Northern Ireland. Both nations faced turbulent times, due to the presence of terrorist organizations i.e. the IRA of Northern Ireland and Spain’s ETA and their associated activities. They engaged in different strategic responses, which proved to being successful in some cases and unsuccessful in others. The paper will dwell on how these two nations tackled existing threats, providing a comparison between strategies utilized, in addition to the prevailing socio-economic and political contexts. Similarities and differences will thus be discussed, aiming at providing a wholesome picture of what counter-terrorism entails. a. Terrorism: A definition Terrorism as an activity, despite the aims, goals, mission and ideals behind it, has not legal basis in contemporary society. Under international law, as Mackinnon (2007) portrays, terrorism has no definition in terms of criminal law that is legally binding. Instead, common definitions are usually in reference mainly to the kind of acts and action, which are violent in nature; and intended to create mass fear/ terror (Mackinnon, 2007:609). Usually, these are perpetrated in the name of political, ideological and religious goals amongst others; deliberately targeting non-combatants with disregard. In addition, acts of war and unlawful violence have also been included, in addition to the violent nature of criminal organizations (Mackinnon, 2007:612). To be noted is that other criminal activities, especially by organized crime syndicates, only turns into terrorism when there is a political, ideological or religious motive. In addition is that there is also need to divert from focus on terrorism’s frequent association with religious overtones i.e. jihadism, to more somber analysis of all violent acts perpetrated against non-combatants. ‘Terrorism’ as a term, is not only emotionally charged, but also politically loaded. This is essentially what compounds the difficulty in trying to provide a precise definition (Mackinnon, 2007:615). Examples include the September 11, 2001 New York attacks; the 2004 Madrid attacks; the 2011 Oslo (Norway) attack; the Bologna (Italy) railway station attack and the 2005, July 7 London Subway bombing amongst many others. All are related to group activities of a terrorist nature, carried out by a group of people or individuals on solo assignment such as the Norway attack. b. Counter-terrorism Counter-terrorism regards all manner of activities, practices, techniques, tactics and strategic policy measures, which are utilized by governments in countering terrorism within their territorial boundaries. Governments, it should be noted, primarily utilize their police-departments, intelligence agencies and militaries, in addition to specialized corporations to counter such activities. Because information is power, intelligence may be accurate or not, defining the nature of response and consequences to follow. The availability of the tactic of terrorism to both the insurgents, as well as governments, has resulted both sides have been accused of terrorism; abate being ‘legally mandated’ with regard to government initiatives. Counter-terrorism is thus viewed as a part of the broader counter-insurgency doctrine (Spencer, 2006:37). Thus, there is the presence of more effort being focused on economic and socio-political measures, amongst others; than on the individual terror acts experienced. This is vital to understanding the ideal behind different organizations accusing governments of also engaging in terrorism and terrorist acts. An example of such mindset is on the United State’s Foreign internal defense (FID) initiative, which entails American support to other nations’ attempts at restoring order, peace and security (Spencer, 2006:40). Through programs and initiatives, governments are aided with the necessary capacity to suppress existing lawlessness and insurgency, as well as reduce conducive conditions for such negative aspects (Spencer, 2006:44). In general, counter-terrorism, also referred to as counter-insurgency, regards both the early detection of potential terrorist threats, and requisite responses to these and other related events. Both the states of Spain and Northern Ireland have engaged in counter-terrorist measures, against insurgency groups in their nations (Spencer, 2006:57). Counter-terrorism strategies usually involve an increase of domestic intelligence and standard policing. Central to this are such measures such as the interception of communications, tracking and tracing of individuals, technology use and other operations both overt and covert in nature. John (1995), states that the prevailing relationship between democracy and domesticated terrorism is quite complex in nature as shall be seen hereafter. This is because terrorism is usually most common in states having intermediate political freedom as opposed to fully-fledged democracies (John, 1995:09). Counter-terrorism in Spain: Tackling the ETA The above statement holds true especially because of studies carried out over time. Suggestions are of the view that suicide-oriented terrorism; the most difficult of crimes to prevent and/or mitigate is an exception to the general rule present. This is due to the existing nature of this particular activity carried out in democracies mainly as retaliation and expression (John, 1995:14). This form of terrorism was considerately enhanced during the 1980s and 90s, when concessions were made in the fight against terrorism. An example of ‘terrorism’ in a non-democratic state was that carried out by Francisco Franco’s ETA – Basque Homeland Freedom organization. It was, and is an armed Basque separatist and nationalist organization, founded in 1959, with the initial aim of promoting traditional Basque culture (John, 1995:17). Later on, it evolved into a paramilitary insurgency, aimed at attaining independence for the Greater Basque ‘nation-state.’ As the most important participant of the conflict, this organization is the core component of the Basque National Liberation Movement (MLNV). Its acts of terror have resulted in the deaths of 829 people, as well as the injury of thousands more (John, 1995:21). Additionally, has been the aspect of its kidnapping activities, thus being restricted to being a terrorist organization. Their struggle for a separate homeland, as Wayne (2003) states, informed the initial hierarchical order present within the organization. Under the leadership of Franco, the organization was split into three substructures i.e. the political, military and logistical arms. Due to the political overtones present, concerning this organization, the strategies utilized by subsequent Spanish governments have been varied touching on policy issues, as well as peace and national security (Wayne, 2003:47). This is informed by the presence of political support for the ETA, by the Batasuna political party, which pursues almost similar political goals. In addition is the latter’s lack of condemnation, of the ETA’s use of violence as a means of insurgency. There has been the banning of the Batasuna party, as well as the aforementioned Basque National Liberation Movement, as a whole (Wayne, 2003:53). This was through the Spanish Cortes (parliament) banning all political parties/ movements, which utilized violence as a means of achieving political goals; or promoted hatred towards destroying existing democracy. The latter was usually achieved by way of instigating hatred amongst different populations present in Spain. This was through the Ley de Partidos Politicos Bill of 2002, drawing disputed debate and outrage from many within the Basque nationalistic movement (Wayne, 2003:57). This was influenced significantly by the resulting arrests, detentions and deportations of various members of the two organizational entities, amongst others banned. Informing the various activities of the ETA, was the MLNV’s regard for existing police actions against its members as constituting torture, violence and state terrorism. This has been one of the reasons behind the organizations frequency of attacks especially on all stakeholders having taken a stand against its activities and overall goal. Judicial offensive measures were not the only initiatives undertaken, but also internal intelligence gathering and investigation, as well as outright assault, at perceived militant groups within the nation. To be noted has been the need for pro-active, as well as inclusive policy measures; concerning tackling this organization’s activities. This is due to the existing ethno-nationalistic ideology behind the ETA (Human Rights Watch, 2005). It is this factor, which necessitated government responses to be concentrated more on an ideological campaign strategy especially because of the social support present for the ETA. This has been through utility of pertinent legislation, inclusive of counter-terrorism legislation based on law; based on the legal conceptualization of terrorism. Gómez-Céspedes (2006), states that two laws are of particular importance in this regard i.e. the law governing incommunicado detention and the Organic Act on the Liability of Minors in relation to Terrorist Crimes. These two are of concern to human rights groups, with the latter alluding to the fact that minors can be judged and condemned in the same manner as adults (18 years and over). On incommunicado detention, there is identification of ethical issues concerning its application as counter-terrorism measure. In the Spanish case, the aforementioned measures, in the official government stand, are inclined more towards ‘silence and denial’. This explains the lack of official government and public debate on issues arising (Gómez-Céspedes, 2006:58). Counter-terrorism in Northern Ireland: Tackling the IRA The IRA as an organization seeks to make Northern Ireland fully autonomous from the United Kingdom, in addition to founding an independent republic inclusive of all of Ireland’s territory. English (2003) provides that as an organization, it emerged in the year 1969, immediately after the Irish Republican Army’s split. This was when ‘the Troubles’ began, as a result of ideological differences within the army; in addition on to how to deal with the ensuing attacks on Catholics in the Northern Ireland region. The deployment of British troops was because of the violence meted out on Catholics, when the latter demanded an observance of their civil rights (English, 2003:81). Ulster loyalists, as well as the government (of the Northern Ireland state) had reacted violently to the demands, resulting in the (Provisional) IRA active insurgency against both the Northern Ireland and British governments (English, 2003:83). Nationalist ideals, as well as religious undertones were the main reasons behind the movement’s activities, hence the proscribing of the IRA as a terrorist organization. Its initial strategy was the utility of force, with the aim of causing the government’s (Northern Ireland) collapse (English, 2003:86). Adding to this was the need to inflict casualties to the British forces, adequate to entail a withdrawal from Ireland. Attacks were thus launched on both economic and military targets, especially after the Bloody Sunday incident (1972). The IRA in the past, as Henry (1989) states, presented the major conflict experienced within Great Britain, with the UK enacting a number of anti-terrorist legislations, as well as policy measures with the main aim of countering the insurgency of group (Henry, 1989:37). The Irish Republic Army (IRA) through its violent campaign necessitated the implementation of the S-Plan as embodied in the Prevention of Violence Act (1939). The act was later replaced by the 1973 Prevention of Terrorism Acts; subsequently replaced by the Terrorism Act 2000 and then the Prevention of Terrorism Act ((2001). These acts were initiated in conjunction with the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act (2001). Subsequent legislation and royal assent was to bring into force, both the Prevention of Terrorism Act (2005) and the Terrorism Act of 2006. The Sinn Fein, political party was influential in the ceasefire that resulted from continued government strategy implementation (Henry, 1989:44). Counter Terrorism Approaches Both organizations were motivated towards nationalist ideals, as the basis of their armed activities. There was the aspect of agitating for a separate homeland, which was inclusively tailored towards ethnic affiliation. In addition, both organizations had domestic, as well as foreign support, which enabled finances, arms and individuals gain entry into areas of conflict. Both engaged in various phases of armed conflicts, which resulted in numerous deaths and thousands of injuries. Methods utilized as effective ways of conveying their ideals included indoctrination, as well as actual conflict and civil strife (Ångström & Isabelle, 2007:55). In both the organizations, there was a hierarchy, which entailed regional and local groups or units being activated for specific tasks; as well as receiving local support from sympathizers. Governments, in both cases utilized different approaches, primarily aimed at winning both the ideological and political battles, which were the foundations of the conflicts. Different laws were passed, in conjunction with international law, with this resulting in the detention, sentencing and deportation of all individuals netted in security operations. Both states on their part, did receive international support, in line with the ideology behind the war on terror (Hopkinson, 2004:21). Both organizations did not only act alone, but had local and international support, in addition to having political wings to agitate for their cause. The IRA is unique due to the fact that if formed as an offshoot of the Irish National Army; influenced by both political and nationalist ideology, as well as religious aspects. ETA on the other hand, was influenced mainly by nationalist and political ideals, and was founded by an individual. IRA operated in not only Ireland, but also the larger Europe, UK and the Irish Republic. ETA on the other hand operated more in Spain (Masferrer, & Walker, 2013:78). Conclusion The goal of any strategy regarding counter-terrorism is towards successful effectiveness. The choice of strategies utilized usually results in either successful or unsuccessful results. This is usually informed by prevailing categorization of various acts, as found within the Global Terrorism Database (GTD1 and GTD2). Governments and those in power, when confronted by opposition that is violent in nature, tend to fight fire with fire. As a result, the immediate reaction usually is to tackle force with force despite the rare chances of such an approach working. Historically, this is recorded in various regions, as administrative governments took similar approaches towards countering terrorism (Marc, 2004:98). It is thus critical for governments to not only tackle such conflicts through coercion, but fundamentally so through dialogue aimed at gradually changing the ideologies behind such movements. While the fight against terror is fundamental to overall global safety and security, it is also critical to treat conflicts based on the reasons, goals and ideals motivating them. Reference List Ångström, J. & Isabelle D 2007, Understanding Victory and Defeat in Contemporary War (Eds.). London: Frank Cass. English, R 2003, Armed Struggle – A History of the IRA. MacMillan, London: MacMillan Press. Gómez-Céspedes, A 2006, NCTB Counter-terrorism Strategies in Spain. Universidad de Málaga. Henry Patterson, H 1989, The Politics of Illusion: Socialism and Republicanism in Modern Ireland. UK: Radius Publishers. Hopkinson, M 2004, Green against Green - the Irish Civil War. Dublin: Gill & MacMillan. Human Rights Watch 2005, Setting an Example? Counter-terrorism Measures in Spain. Sixth Framework Research Programme [European Commission], retrieved from: http://www.libertysecurity.org/article144.html John, WR 1995, Policing Under Fire: Ethnic Conflict and Police-Community Relations in Northern Ireland. New York: State University of New York Press. Mackinnon, AD 2007, Counterterrorism and Check and Balances: The Spanish and American Examples. New York University Law Review, 82: 602-655. Marc, SM 2004, Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Masferrer, A & Walker, C 2013, Counter-terrorism, Human Rights and the Rule of Law: Crossing Legal Boundaries in Defence of the State. NY, New York: Edward Elgar Publishing. Spencer, A 2006, The problems of evaluating counter-terrorism. UNISCI Discussion Papers, No. 12. Wayne, A 2003, The ETA: Spain’s Basque Terrorists. The Rosen Publishing Group. Read More