Structural and Sequential Method of Dealing with Risks - Research Paper Example

Analysis and Differentiation between Issues in Contemporary Social Justice System and Criminal Justice System Rachel Nichols CRJ422: Criminal Justice Capstone Florence Ferguson January 21, 2013 Introduction Every society is built on a justice system that defines what is right, wrong, responsibilities of people and the acceptable behavior. Different societies around the world have slightly different definitions of these standards as often there are several factors that affect how these standards are defined or translated. Some of these factors include but are not limited to: culture, racism, ethnic differences, social status and religious beliefs. The criminal justice system has some differences from social judiciary in many ways and the social system often questions and contradicts the resolutions and decisions of the criminal system as the criminal system is more inclined towards punishment than rehabilitation. The following thesis discusses and researches these core differences between the two systems with a discussion on different approaches and procedures involved within. Thesis Statement There are several forms of issues and concerns implying the differences in the social and criminal justice system that contradict the basic approach of the other system however this thesis specifically discusses the issue of whether social position and race/ethnicity play a major role in the extent and probability of a punishment in the criminal justice system? Though racism and discrimination of people ofcolor has been a major issue, language or religion has been a social curse for centuries and even after awareness and pacts to remove this from the society, the trend is still a big threat in the modern American society. Often it has been observed that poor or people from the lower class of society are more prone to be caught and executed for their crimes in comparison to the people from upper class who either remain uncaught or have various ways to escape the punishment. Issue Brief In an interview Michelle Anderson publicly says that racial discrimination is still active in the American culture and as a result the African American community in the country has been continually forced to live a life in the most under privileged surroundings with the least amount of access to better education, job or quality of life. In addition to all this these people are the most vulnerable to be caught for minor acts of crimes and be put in with serious criminals. This rigid attitude of the criminal justice system with even the young members of such minorities labels them as felons for the rest of their life and takes away any opportunity to improve the quality of their life or for their families (Alexander, 2012). There is a controversial explanation for this scenario by the civil right advocates and the criminal justice system each with its own beliefs and goals. This thesis will discuss the issue with a perception from both sides within the justice process. Research Methodology The paper will utilize the available resources such as books, criminology journals and papers and other authentic online resources to research and discuss the issues related to this thesis statement. A complete reference of all the available resources shall be given at the end of this document in bibliography. Impact of Social Position on Criminal Behavior/Attitude In order to understand whether the thesis is correct in stating that the social position of the criminal has real importance in the criminal justice process for sentencing punishments, it is of utmost importance to consider what are some of the known impacts of the social class of a person that might trigger negative or criminal attitude in them? The lower classes of society have the least amount of opportunities for better education, job and living standard. The typical neighborhoods of the lower income class are more subjective to crimes and violence mostly out of frustrations and the feeling of being isolated. Children growing up in these locations experience the hardships of life quite early in their life as most of the families are usually single parent (often mother) thus financial issues are on peak in addition to abuse and violence at home. While the families are disturbed and abused, the social surroundings and neighbourhood give even more open options and encourage destructive and criminal behavior. Considering the level of quality of life and the continual lack of basic necessities of life develops a frustration and rebellious attitude in people, thus these people who have been in the same situation feel that they need to reach any limits to get out of that system by hook or crook. Though these reasons and background are known to everyone, the perceptions regarding these people surrounded by crimes and violence are quite different in the social and criminal justice system. The relationship between social justice and the criminal justice system The system of social justice emphasizes upon promoting a society in which any type of injustice is redressed and justice is delivered. This society is based upon the concept humanity that is shared by every member of the society, which promotes equitable treatment of all individuals and preservation of their human rights. The system of criminal justice is a practice by the federal government that aims at maintaining social control and deterring any incident of crime. This system emphasizes upon the prosecution of anyone who is involved in any offensive activity and that they should be penalized for their deed. This process involves punishment given to the offenders. The criminal justice system is has evolved to bring justice to the criminals as well as the victims and the others in the society that are affected by the act of crime. Hence it should also involve the option of rehabilitation of the perpetrators so that the motive behind their act can be addressed and they can be provided with a chance to revert back to the mainstream of life. The laws of social justice are embodied in the system of criminal justice since justice can be brought to the offenders only by making them realise the honour of leading a good life and by providing them with the opportunity to do so. The individuals that the crime control agencies identify as criminals are human beings above all; they are entitled to the basic rights that anybody else possesses and in the process of correction they have to be granted these rights. Criminal and social justice theories in relation to the United States Constitution The Constitution of the United States provides protection to the minorities of the country. Any person who is born in the US or the immigrants that are sworn in as American citizens are entitled to equal rights under the constitution irrespective of whether they belong to the majority or to any of the minority groups. The suspects of crime and the criminal defendants are provided with their rights and are protected under the constitution against infringement by the officers of the criminal justice agencies. The person is allowed to understand the nature of his crime by providing assistance to him through counseling. The agencies are responsible for the enforcement of the laws and supposed to uphold them. It is required of them that the crimes of the same nature are to be adjudicated by following the uniform guidelines for prosecution. The Constitution also protects the citizens from invasion of their privacy unexpectedly by the officers. Besides, if a person faces any kind of injustice, he or she would be provided with equal treatment like any other person, irrespective of the racial or social status or whether he or she has been previously accused of any criminal activity. Perceptions & Considerations in Social Justice System The social justice process emphasizes on the fairness and unbiased accountability. The social justice system believes that regardless of the type of crime or offender the process of trial and sentence should be same. Additionally, the social justice system gives a lot of importance to the concept of rehabilitation and counselling in order to lower or rectify the basic reasons for the criminal attitude. The social justice system considers the background and surroundings of a criminal such as the past experiences, motives, opportunity, absence of control and the overall life as these factors constitute the behavior and social attitude of a person. The social justice process and the ideology believe in placing everyone at the same level before sentencing punishment or considering anyone actually criminal. The social justice system does not deny the need of criminal justice but it advocates that the less privileged people or people from a minority ethnicity are more prone to these circumstances due to the problematic situations surrounding around them. These people usually get involved in street crimes as well as in serious crimes such as murders and drugs but they are more involved into these situations as they have less opportunity to get out of it. Their motive behind their crimes is usually more for financial gain or importance, due to the racist and biased attitude they face all their life. In comparison to these criminals, people from elite class are also involved in crimes and misconduct even though they have better opportunities in life and have better quality of life at their disposal. The justice process provides more opportunities to the privileged class as they can hire better lawyers and have better accessibility in the society for their protection while the less privileged class can only benefit through the state appointed legal counsel, additionally, they cannot take bail due to the financial burdens. Thus when the lesser privileged citizen enters a courtroom he is already believed to be a criminal. Stereotyping and labeling In Criminal Justice System Labelling is considerably a big issue in the criminal justice system that defines the behavior and expectations from a person according to their past experiences, background, ethnicity, race or class. The social justice process doesn’t define the criminal behavior in terms of their race, ethnicity or due to the stats or any probability theory. In comparison to this criminal justice theories perceive the probability of criminal behaviour according to certain defined standards. Often people from minor ethnicity and especially black males are considered more troublesome, dangerous or prone to engage in serious crimes. This collective perception regarding a race is termed as labelling. The consequences of labelling according to experts are that people tend to behave according to the way others believe they will act. This labelling therefore often invokes a negative attitude among these people and thus acts as a motive for their illegal act. The social theory on the other hand advocates that every person is different and not everyone in less privileged class can be a criminal just because they have seen hardships in their life (Samaha, 2005). The reason that the criminal justice system labels some class of society is backed by empirical researches and data that show some common attributes among these criminals. Minorities mostly black males are the most common offenders as well as victims. The stats show that a large percentage of blacks were arrested for 37% of all the violent crime (murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery and aggravated assault) in the country (Rosich, 2007). The social control theory states in this regard that people have different thinking and beliefs even if their general attributes are similar. This theory defines why some people break rules while others in the same circumstances will not do so. According to the theory, attachment to others (family, parents, friends etc.), commitment to the desire and goals (education, job, status), involvement in social activities and belief in the betterment through system all play a role in whether a person would make or break the rules, thus the social class and ethnicity or race might be strong influences, but the individual thinking and beliefs decide the way a person behaves in certain circumstances. Interestingly, this theory also implies that a person might belong to the elite class but may not full fill the social control theory and engagein criminal behavior by choice possibly for no other reason than adventure and just because the opportunity lies there (Samaha, 2005). The criminal justice system and the constitution were designed by people in times when racism, biasness due to the social, cultural and religious attributes were common, the impact of those feelings were strong and widespread in the decision making process in courtroom. This prejudice was somehow transferred in the generations and likewise the main actors in the judiciary system were also implicitly affected by this biased behaviour. Currently due to efforts from social and civil rights movements racial discrimination has been regarded unconstitutional. These reforms imply that minority defendants now have the right to bail and have access to proper legal representation. Some years back these minorities or less privileged citizens were charged with crime and punished without the proper investigation procedures due to discrimination and biasness (Rosich, 2007). Prejudice & Biasness in Law Enforcement Process The law enforcement agencies and individuals are trained not only through academics rather they get trained through real life experiences, this is why the police and other forces treat the offenders depending upon the experiences and prejudices that is somehow implanted in them from history. Research shows that the police and the law enforcing agencies have an unconscious biasness towards upper class and the privileged race that is White Americans. Due to this inherent prejudice they are often more strict and violent towards the minority and less privileged class in society. The investigations process for these people is also strict and mostly their statement is judged by discrimination as the witnesses and evidences in favor of these offenders are all usually from the same class and status. The facts and stats also show that these minority class citizens also feel abandoned and have a negative attitude towards police thus they usually do not coordinate or cooperate with the police thus making things all the more problematic. The distrust for police additionally makes it hard to control crime and enforce law in those areas which only contributes in worsening the conditions. Since the minority racial groups are also the less privileged class in social status too thus it has been seen that the perception of the minority group about the police and the vice versa is always negative and the attitude of the police for these groups is mostly strict, rigid and often violent as they are considered to be the social class prone to criminal behavior. In a survey, the black minority groups in Chicago, Los Angeles, St Louis and Philadelphia had a negative attitude towards the police but in contrast the African Americans in Denver had a favorable attitude towards the police as they were a majority and elite class in Denver (Ben Brown, 1997). In comparison to this the elite class offenders have much preferences and privileges even during investigation and law enforcement processes as there is a political and social pressure while interrogating or arresting a member or upper social class due to their status and their connections in the society. Operations of the Criminal Justice System The criminal justice system in the country deals with criminal activities of different patterns across the different states. All such activities are linked to some particular location or locations. This location is referred to by the agencies of the criminal justice system as the ‘scene of crime’. Besides the criminal, the crime scene is a most important part of any investigation. This place is the ground for the police and investigators to hunt for the necessary evidence. The evidences are visible openly and also are present in implicit forms and clues. The professionals follow different techniques to conduct the investigation during which they remain unbiased and handle the evidences with intense care so as to preserve them for future reference. They need to take extreme care and certify crime scene security so that the evidences are not interfered and righteous judgement of the offence and be ensured. The system of investigation is however not always bias-free. The professionals are human beings and they are affected unconsciously by the prevalent norms and prejudices at some point of time. Thus injustice creeps into the system of collection of evidence when they police and investigators look for evidences or list the names of the suspects. If any black or any person belonging to the lower strata of the society is involved in the scene of crime, it is common tendency to develop a negative idea about that person. Thus the collection of evidences become inspired these concepts, sometimes if not always, and the process of judgement gets modified at its root. The other important aspect of investigation is the strategic presentation of the evidences for proving the crime. In this process, the entire plot of the crime is virtually presented in the court. Any manipulation of the evidences would lead to a wrong understanding of the situation thereby leading a wrong decision on part of the judge. Taking advantage of their knowledge of the system and their connections in the society, the offenders belonging to the upper classes of the society might mould the pattern of evidence to escape punishment. Neighborhood effects on the Investigation/Interrogation For a long period of time experts and socialists have argued the impact of the neighborhood effect on the criminal investigation and interrogation process. By default the types, extent and actus reus for crimes committed by offenders somehow is related to their social position. The rich and affluent class offenders usually commit crime is secure places where there are few or no witnesses available. In contrast to this the offenders from the poor communities are involved in crimes that are mostly committed on streets and in public places with several witnesses. Additionally, in the case of the elite class the police officers are not free to carry out the interrogation and investigation according to the need of the crime. Since these offenders understand the law and its limitations they have strong links even in the law enforcement agencies. This scenario can be defined in the light of the neighborhood effect that states that the surroundings of the offender have a huge impact on the opportunities, life and behaviour. Thus offenders from the elite class will have the options and privileges according to their class and status even if they are proven guilty. On the other hand offenders from poorer communities have the least amount of opportunity to show the evidence and witnesses for their sake and usually face violent and severe attitude from the police other agencies (Robert J. Sampson, 2002). Incarceration or Imprisonment According to a recent study 3 out of 4 African American males (especially from less privileged areas) go to prison at least once in their lifetime. This rate of imprisonment or incarceration is even higher in the indigent or ghetto communities. (Alexander, 2012) The table shows the probability of minority ethnic communities to be in jail or prison at least once in their lifetime as compared to the white Americans. Only a glance at the difference the numbers show, there is a significance difference between the probability of arresting and imprisoning a black or minority ethnic person that also backs the points made by Michelle Anderson in her interview as mentioned above. The criminal justice system is more inclined towards punishing an offender in order to restrict criminal activities than it is to remove the reasons or to educate the offender in some way to rethink their behavior towards the society. The later attitude is what the social justice system advocates to create an environment where every ethnic group has equal rights to live life. Since the minority groups are usually prone to crime sentencing them to jail or severe punishment such as the death penalty or a lifelong stay in a prison is easier than for the offenders from high social class. The criminals from the elite class are usually more involved in matters of information theft, money frauds and even national security matters. Though national security is given the utmost importance for other offenses, it is usually quite hard to have a fair trial on time and giving a fair sentence to the offender as these cases (white collar crimes) take years to be resolved. The situation of prisons today do not provide any opportunity to the criminals to rehabilitate or counsel in order to deter minor offenders or first time offenders from committing more crimes, instead by mingling with mature and habitual criminals and due to the frustration among these offenders they get more involved into crime and justify their behavior against the society especially the white community. The facts show just as mentioned by Michelle Anderson in her interview that the black defendants are more prone to get serious penalties such as the death row as compared to the white defendants. As also stated by Justice Harry Blackmun the decision of death penalty is often influenced by the race of the defendant. Figure 2 Death Sentence by Race Source: (Richard C. Dieter, June 1998) The prosecutors for these minority defendants are usually federal prosecutors and not especially hired for the purpose thus they give less importance to their client. Justice Harry Blackmun believes that the prosecutors have a strong role in presenting the case and crime and its severity. Thus somehow the sentencing of death row to the minority defendants is influenced by several factors and these groups are affected negatively due to these circumstances. The labeling of these stigmatized communities plays a role at each level of judicial process and results in serious penalties and future consequences for them (Richard C. Dieter, June 1998). Centralization of criminal justice agencies domestically Coordination among the various criminal justice agencies in the United States is of very high necessity. The US policing system is a loosely connected system, made up of fragmented agencies (Weisburd, 2009, p. 155). This sometimes acts like a barrier towards an effective control of offences within the country. Since the presence of crime is felt across all the states in the US, it is important to detect the offences at all places and stop there occurrence. This has necessitated the establishment of agencies of criminal justice system in all the level, starting from the national, state and local level. The level of crime varies across the expanse of the state. Hence the social justice thesis plays a big role here. The people of the different states have different backgrounds, culture, social system, and hence a dissimilar way of life. In this regard the theory of the social justice system plays an important role. The crime control agencies are dispersed and the procedure of enforcement of law varies across the regions since they are not unified. The social justice system recognizes that the type of punishment can be different for different types of crimes, but it emphasizes that the process of process of prosecution has to follow a uniform rule. This is important to preserve similarity of treatment of the offenders across the states. The system of criminal justice is based upon federalism. In this system, the power to redress a crime is divided between the central or state government and the regional governments in the states. The matters that are perceived to have impact on the nation as a whole are handled by the federal government. But not at any level, a single level of government is entirely responsible for administrating criminal justice. A vast number of criminal justice laws are written by the state legislatures and are enforced by the state level agencies. A multiplicity of national criminal laws are enacted by the Congress and are enforced by the central agencies, such as, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, “the Drug Enforcement Administration” (Cole, Smith & DeJong,, 2012, p. 94), the Secret Service and other some other central agencies of the country. Some of the state criminal laws are set against counterfeiting and espionage. The state laws are mainly set to prevent offences like assault, robbery and driving in a drunken state. It is found that more number of offences pertain to the acts that are prohibited by the state enforced laws. This is a common notion that people often tend to break the rules set upon certain acts that people in general do in their daily lives. These state laws are set to keep an eye on the safety of the people and to help people live a life free from fear by taking care of life and property. The individuals that belong to the less affluent class are faced with struggle in their daily lives for their survival. These people are used to rough ways of livelihoods for generations and are exposed to such means of life at a tender age. The social cultures in which they belong are also not supportive of them. The black skinned people in most of the states belong to a low income category and are deprived of the basic necessities to lead a normal livelihood. Hence they take recourse to violent activities to fulfill their necessities. These leads to robbery and related other offences that harm lives. The police are authorized to exercise force in order to deal with criminals; but they do not always conscious about the ethical side of their actions. The less privileged ones in the society often drink in order to keep away from the grueling reality of their lives. It is not the fact that the richer ones do not drink, but, in cases of any road accident involving a drunken driver, if the driver is a black, the crime control agencies generally give more strong verdict to punish the offender than it happens in case of a white American. The state level agencies that are entrusted with the responsibility to look after such concerns in most states follow the norm of labeling the offenders on the basis of their backgrounds and descent and treat the accused harshly even before the guilt is proved. Such things ignite feelings of resentment in the minds of the minority groups that are neglected by the society and are also not protected by the government. This provides them with the fuel to give vent to the resentment against the well-off class of the society, and they lose respect for the humans of the others classes of the society. Since the actors of the criminal justice system are not unified centrally, they take varied actions in different regions to make the guilty admit his or her guilt. Across all levels, the system of “criminal and social justice” (Barak, Leighton & Flavin, 2007, p. 199) in the country reveals the presence of discretion. This may sound odd in a country like America, in which every act is guided by a well established law. However, being a decentralized system, the agencies are given the liberty to deal with the crimes at a regional level. This minimizes the cost of trial and save resources and time. The discretionary system of justice is defended on the ground that certain offences need a personal intervention on part of the system to deliver a proper justice. Sometimes the subtle aspects of the incident cannot be judged through rigid standardized rules. In these cases the discretionary actions deliver better justice to the innocent and also help in correcting the offender. However, the connections shared by the elite class members with the local agencies are of different levels in different regions. The actors of the agencies tend to perform more in accordance with their personal experience regarding similar crimes of the past, in which the offender has been punished severely, rather directing their discretionary power impersonally. This leads to manipulation of the judgment passed against any member of the richer social class. This calls for the need to oversee the activities of the crime control agencies across all regions so that the crime as well as criminals would be addressed uniformly in the entire country even before the final judgment of the offense is heard. The departments at the state level is accountable to the Department of Homeland Security for the documentation and designing of all crime control arrangements that are to be made in the country. Homeland Security Act 2002 The Homeland Security Act was passed in the year 2002 after the United States felt the need for better vigilance over the rights and freedoms of the people of America (Olson, 2005). This act was passed as a consequence of the massive attack upon the World Trade Center in the New York City in the previous year and aimed at securing the homeland against such destructions that disrupt normal life of its people. Better vigilance over the people could only be ensured through more specifically defined laws for any kind of situation and better enforcement of the same. A new federal agency, with the name Department of Homeland Security, was established in November of 2002 “as an executive department of the United States” (Homeland Security Act of 2002, n.d.) that was responsible for the prevention of terrorist attacks in the United States. It has to act towards reducing “America’s vulnerability to terrorism” (Siegel, 2009, p. 175) and take steps to minimize the damage from the attacks that still occur. It is the duty of the Federal agency to help the country recover from the attacks that come over. It also ensures the overall security of the economy by conducting various activities and programs that aim towards securing the homeland. Monitoring and preventing any activities like, trafficking of drugs or acts of terrorism of any kind within the country is one of the responsibilities of the department. The United States is a country in which the citizens come from different racial backgrounds. There are the whites and other minority groups. These minority groups are often suppressed and their interests not taken care of. They rear a feeling of dislike and rage against the others that do not belong to their ethnic groups. The people from the minority groups, since in most cases are under privileged and have a low income, fight to secure their fights and interests. Thus, in the country, racial justice is an important and sensitive issue that requires responsible handling. Delivering justice to the minority of the population, that seek freedom and equality for themselves just like any other American, is one of the major challenges as well as important duties of the federal government. The common perception that the blacks and other minorities are responsible for criminal activities in the country labels the entire groups as offenders in front of the society. This deprives those individuals in these minorities that are innocent from their deserving respect and right. This reaps the seeds of anger in these people and provokes them to snatch their rights through violent activities. They get severely punished for even minor crimes, and through this get the opportunity to get involved in bigger crimes, such as, drugs trafficking or associate themselves with other groups that nurture strong hatred against the elite class of Americans. The federal agency has to handle this issue with sincerity in order to stop the illegal activities that disrupt normal life in the country. International criminal and social security system The security of the people of the country is directly related to the “criminal and social justice” (Barak, Leighton & Flavin, 2007, p. 199) system in the country an also casts a shadow on the international “criminal and social justice” (Barak, Leighton & Flavin, 2007, p. 199) system. The problems like terrorism and trafficking do not limit themselves within geographic boundaries. The fight against terrorism, drug cartels, human abuse and suppression of human rights, testing and usage of deadly nuclear weapons and the possession of illegitimate ammunitions has an international character. These are part of the “criminal and social justice” (Barak, Leighton & Flavin, 2007, p. 199) system of the entire world and poses threat to its peace as severely as it does for the homeland security of America. The International Court of Justice situated in Netherlands looks after the issues that concern the entire world. Conclusion The basic underlying principles of social justice place the needs of people before any other thing. The needs include basic necessities life food, shelter, clothing and education. The social and civil right experts advocate that crime is influenced and is caused by several factors that affect the basic nature and behavior of a person. Though social control theory states that not everyone gets involved in negative attitude, but more the level of frustration higher is the probability that a person might feel justified in negativity against the society. The criminal justice system is designed and developed through studies that rely on the experience and previous cases of similar crimes and defendants thus they judge the defendants on these predefined attributes, thus presume similar behavior from people of similar attributes. This methodology cannot be stated to be completely wrong as more black males are involved in criminal activities but this method often results in wrong perceptions and often incorrect penalties. The criminal justice system has to take care that the crimes are detected with efficiency at all levels of the administrative areas of the country and that the offenders are treated with equality. The true redress of crimes is only possible when the cause of crime can be understood and the offenders can be given the opportunity to lead a normal life in the larger society, with respect. The socialists believe that by giving serious penalties to the minority minor offenders without the opportunity for rehabilitation and counseling is the main reason for that vicious cycle of restricted life style for the generations of minorities as they cannot get out of this brand and strive for a better future. In order to lower this discrimination in the judicial system opportunities need to be created for the less privileged citizens of the nation. references Alexander, M. (2012, August 1). Michelle Alexander on the Irrational Race Bias of the Criminal Justice and Prison Systems. (M. Karlin, Interviewer) Ben Brown, W. R. (1997). Perceptions of the police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Managemen. CliffsNotes.com. (2012, January 16). The Criminal Justice System. Retrieved from CliffNotes: Richard C. Dieter, E. E. (June 1998). The Death Penalty in Black and White: Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Decides. Death Penalty Information Center. Robert J. Sampson, J. D.-R. (2002). ASSESSING “NEIGHBORHOOD EFFECTS”: Social Processes and New Directions in Research. Annual Reviews. Rosich, K. J. (2007, December). Race, Ethnicity, and the Criminal Justice System. Washington: American Sociological Association. Retrieved from A M E R I C A N S O C I O L O G I C A L A S S O C I A T I O N. Samaha, J. (2005). Criminal Justice. Cengage Learning. 1.  Barak, G. Leighton, P. & Flavin, J. (2007). Class, Race, Gender, and Crime: The Social Realities of Justice in America. Rowman & Littlefield. 2. Cole, G. F. Smith, C. E. & DeJong, C. (2012). The American System of Criminal Justice. Cengage Learning. 3. Homeland Security Act of 2002 (n.d.), retrieved on January 28, 2013 from http://www.dhs.gov/homeland-security-act-2002 4. Olson, S. P. (2005). The Homeland Security Act of 2002: Legislation To Protect America. The Rosen Publishing Group. 5. Siegel, L. J. (2009). Introduction to Criminal Justice. Cengage Learning. 6. Weisburd, D. (2009). To Protect and to Serve: Policing in an Age of Terrorism. Springer. Read More