Putting an End to Violence against Women - Essay Example

Putting an End to Violence against Women Introduction Violence against women is one of the world’s most compelling and prominent gendered social problems (DeKeseredy, 2011). It continues to be one of the most prevalent of human rights violations denying women and children their right to basic freedoms (Kapoor, 2000). Violence against women is present in every country; in the US alone 17.6% of women have undergone some form of rape. 21.6% were younger than age 12 when they were first raped, and 32.4% were between the ages of 12 and 17 (Bancroft-Hinchey, 2011). The USA is not alone in these statistics however, as 60 million girls disappear each year (many from Asian countries) as a result of sexual crimes, and one third of the population of women around the world experience some form of violence. In addition to this 4 million women and girls are trafficked every year, while approximately one million girls enter the sex trade. Before delving further into the issue of violence against women, it is important that a firm definition of what the subject matter is be established. There is actually no universally accepted definition of violence against women. Some advocates of human rights prefer broad definitions that include poverty and unequal access to education and health to describe acts of violence against women. Some however prefer a more narrow definition so that the actual descriptive power of the term is not lost (Kapoor, 2000). According to Dean Kilpatrick, Director of the Medical University of South Carolina’s National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Centre, the debate as to whether to define violence against women broadly or narrowly is “old, fierce and unlikely to be resolved in the future” (DeKeseredy, 2011). Likewise, debates about terminologies are also prevalent. Whatever the case maybe, the need for a concrete and specific definition is important so that research, monitoring and policy-making can become more specific as well as applicable cross-culturally (Kapoor, 2000). According to the World Health Organization (2011), the United Nations defines violence against women as “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. The above definition has recognized that violence against women is one of the most fundamental social mechanisms wherein women are forcibly placed on lower positions as compared with men. In addition it has also defined violence against women as encompassing, but not limited to, three areas namely violence within the family, within the community and violence committed (and in some instances tolerated) by the state (Kapoor, 2000). In most studies, the most common type of violence committed against women is domestic violence. It is the most prevalent but also commonly hidden, and sadly almost always ignored, form of violence experienced by women and girls. Domestic violence includes violence committed against women and girls by an intimate partner, including a cohabiting partner and other family members, regardless of whether the act was done within the household or not (Kapoor, 2000). Studies have estimated that from country to country, 20 to 50 per cent of women have experienced some form of physical violence committed by an intimate partner or a family member. This does not mean however that other forms of violence such as those committed by strangers outside the home or in instances of civil war or conflict are not worthy of equal attention. However despite these concerning statistics, the seriousness of women’s violent victimization has only been recently recognized as a social problem within the last 30 years or so (Renzetti & Bergen, 2005). In the U.S. it was not until 1989 that the U.S. Department of Justice began including in the National Crime Victimization Survey questions to accurately measure the incidence of rape and violence done by intimate partners and other family members (Renzetti & Bergen, 2005). Although a number of social scientists have recorded that physical and sexual abuse by intimate partners and other family members have occurred for centuries, they have also pointed out that a problem only becomes a “social” problem once it is no longer considered a “personal trouble” and instead as a “public issue” (Renzetti & Bergen, 2005). In the late 1960’s up to the early 1970’s, the resurgence of women’s movement became one of the major forces in raising public awareness of the seriousness of the violence happening to women. The feminist social scientist during the early 1970’s who started to collect data on intimate partner violence and sexual abuse began reframing research questions from “what’s wrong with women who get raped or abused?” and “what’s wrong with men who abuse or kill women they claim to love?” to “how do our society’s gender norms contribute to the high rate of violence against women?” and “does the differential power that male and females have in our society contribute to the problem of violence against women?” (Renzetti & Bergen, 2005) The Impact of Development The modernization of agriculture has significantly modified the division of labour between the sexes, often leading to the increased dependent status of women and also their workload. Women in societies still in transition (from agricultural to industrial) often lose control over resources, such as land, and are often excluded from access to improved agricultural methods. Males have higher chances of social mobility than females, and women are often left alone to support their needs as well as their children’s (Momsen, 2010). In some countries, women carry double or sometimes triple their workload as they cope with childcare, housework, and subsistence food production while also trying to cope up with paid employment. It is important to remember that everywhere, gender is crosscut by differences in class, race, ethnicity, religion and race. Many however have often seen women as a socially constituted homogenous group on the basis of shared oppression, but it is important to remember that different places and societies have different practices and it is necessary to be able to recognize this heterogeneity in a global homogenous context (Momsen, 2010). Women are central to development. They have been thought to control most of the non-money economy of a country or a society through the bearing and raising of children, accomplishing of household maintenance and subsistence agriculture. In every corner of the globe women have two jobs, one within the household and one outside it, however their works are usually undervalued and unrecognized (Momsen, 2010). Take into account the women in war or conflict stricken countries. Women may take on a particular symbolic importance for the different warring factions, their behaviour may be contested or they may be under attack as wives or mothers of the fighters. Other times women may take on active roles in protesting, joining militias or political activity (Byrne, 1995) as fighters, community leaders, social organisers, workers, farmers, traders, welfare workers, among other roles (Afshar & Eade, 2004). Despite this, most conflict narratives still portray women as seeking to minimise the effects of violence brought about by the conflict through their different social roles. They are sometimes called on to express values, behaviours and codes which are generally associated with their gender. As one female activist, Garcia, stated (1994 quoted by Afshar & Eade, 2004; P.14): “The women, however, seem more creative and effective in waging peace ... It is the women’s emotional strength to transcend pain and suffering and their predisposition to peace that provides them with greater potentials for peacemaking.” However, these very same qualities are often used against them as often times they find their rights restricted or withdrawn under military governments. Women are often rarely in the position to make direct decisions about the waging of conflict (Byrne, 2004). Also, women who are thought of to be economically and socially dependent on men are affected by the disappearance of their husbands and fathers. In addition they are also killed and imprisoned in times of war, and when in prison they suffer gender-specific violence such as sexual torture and mental abuse which are often designed to attack their identity as women. If they are not taken prisoners and are instead full or “active” members of a certain group, they are expected or required to sexually service men of the group. Women are also in danger of attack or injury due to their culturally assigned roles, such as queuing for food or fetching firewood and water (Byrne, 2004). Promoting Gender Equality Gender Equality does not necessarily mean that the number of men and women (or boys and girls) in a certain activity should always be equal nor does it mean that they are to be treated in the same way (Momsen, 2010). Instead it means equality of opportunity and a society wherein women and men are able to live equally fulfilling lives. Gender equality aims to recognize that both sexes often have different needs and priorities and they face different constraints in achieving their goals and aspirations. To promote gender equality, there are several areas that policy makers need to recognize and work on. Aside from creating opportunities for equal access to life chances, authorities need to work on understanding the experiences of women in navigating and negotiating around justice institutions. To be more specific, research and operational works are needed to understand what kinds of justice processes and arrangements bring about improved access to justice for women and men alike, and how are they to emerge? (worldbank.org, 2012) Also, foster learning and innovation relating to equal access to the delivery of public goods and services, and on enhancing women’s empowerment to bring about more equitable service delivery outcomes to promote the progress of gender-equitable service delivery, such as closing gender gaps in education should be focused on. As for conflict stricken societies, policy makers must look at three areas in order to prevent the ongoing violation of human rights, especially women’s human rights, despite the existence of international laws and conventions designed to prevent such violations. They must understand: 1. What frameworks underpin international laws, rights and conventions related to armed conflict? How gendered are these? 2. What do international laws, conventions and rights actually protect? 3. Why are these international laws and commitments weak in practice? (El Jack, 2003) It is important to put in mind that the absence of gender equality spells out a huge loss of human potential and resources and has costs for both men and women and most importantly for development (Momsen, 2010). Bibliography Afshar, H. and Eade, D. (2004) Development, Women, and War Feminist Perspectives. Oxfam GB, p.13. Available at: http://www.developmentinpractice.org/sites/developmentinpractice.org/files/WomenandWarFullTextEN.pdf. Byrne, B. (1995) Gender, conflict and development. Bridge: Development - Gender, 1 (34), p.22. Available at: http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/Reports/re34c.pdf. Cornwall, A., Harrison, E. and Whitehead, A. (2007). Feminisms in development: contradictions, contestations and challenges. London, Zed Books. DeKeseredy, W. (2011) Violence Against Women: Myths, Facts, Controversies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, p.4. El Jack, A. (2003) Gender and Armed Conflict. Bridge: Development - Gender, p.21. Available at: http://konsnet.dk/multisites/konsnet/images/konsnet/pdf/CEP-Conflict-Report.pdf. English.pravda.ru (2012) Violence against women: Shocking statistics . [online] Available at: http://english.pravda.ru/opinion/columnists/04-04-2011/117451-gender_violence-0/ [Accessed: 3 Nov 2012]. Jacobs, S. M., Jacobson, R., and Marchbank, J. (2000). States of conflict: gender, violence, and resistance. London, Zed Books. Kapoor, S. (2000) Domestic Violence Against Women and Girls. Innocenti Digest, (6), p.1. Momsen, J. H. (2010). Gender and development. London, Routledge. Moser, C. O. N., & Clark, F. C. (2001). Victims, perpetrators or actors?: gender, armed conflict and political violence. London, Zed Books. Renzetti, C. M., and Bergen, R. K. (2005). Violence against women. Lanham, MD, Rowman & Littlefield. Terry, G., and Hoare, J. (2007). Gender-based violence. Oxford, Oxfam. Web.worldbank.org (2012) Justice for the Poor - Gender. [online] Available at: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTLAWJUSTICE/EXTJUSFORPOOR/0,,contentMDK:21172682~menuPK:3296250~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:3282787,00.html [Accessed: 4 Nov 2012]. Who.int (2011) WHO | Violence against women - Intimate partner and sexual violence against women. [online] Available at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/ [Accessed: 3 Nov 2012]. Read More