An Analysis of the Black Race - Essay Example

The Historical Construction of "Blackness An Analysis of the "Black" Race, Ethni and Identity Introduction Although there are many nations that pass laws conforming to the principles of equality nowadays, issues on racial differences still exist. In the context of race, theories of cultural studies are helpful in understanding the rationale behind the aspects and issues concerning social structures, which includes racism (Maxwell, 2000, p.281). So long as the cultural difference continues to divide nations, these issues would not cease to haunt those who are considered to belong to the “other” race. The reference of the “other” race implies that, as human civilisation continue to prosper, the idea of ethnic minority and majority groups develops, as well. As Song (2001, p.58) suggests, this kind of grouping not only designates racial groups to a specific role in the society, but it also puts the minor groups into the shadow and subordination to the so-called “major” ethnic groups. Relatively, this racial and ethnic positioning also puts the “other” race into confusion as they become burdened by the nature of their identity. Racism, as a social problem, needs to be remedied to help the marginalised race overcome the barriers of color (A. Smedely and B. Smedley, 2005, p.16). In this way, people will be able to understand ethnic and racial identities as well as appreciate the significance of cultural diversity today (Frable, 1997, pp.142-143). Considering these ideas, this paper draws on scholarly articles to discuss the intertwining concepts of race, ethnicity, and identity. Specifically, this paper aims to discuss those concepts in relation to the “Black” subject. The Concepts of Race, Ethnicity, and Identity The Black subject stems from issues related to race, ethnicity, and identity. As Blacks and those who are considered non-white continue to suffer from racial and ethnic tensions worldwide, issues on race, ethnicity, and identity will continue to prevail in the society. Considering this situation, it can be said that studying these concepts would enable people to understand the nature of the Black subject, and the reason why it came into being. Before discussing the origin of the Black subject, it is essential to understand the concepts of race, ethnicity, and identity. These three concepts interrelate in a way that people use those to identify and differentiate themselves. The concept of identity, in the words of Brubaker and Cooper (2000, p.7), refers to three things: 1) product of socio-political action, 2) self-hood, and 3) group category. All these three aspects apply in the context of the Black subject. Black, as a group category, refers to the black-skinned people of the African continent. As the Black became subjects to slavery and oppression, the identity of the Black as slaves is a result of socio-political action, which is colonisation. These two aspects are significant in the formation of self-hood as the morale of the Black is affected by the adverse treatment of their masters. As a result of slavery, Black-White antagonism develops and remains in White societies worldwide (Nagel, 1994, p.153). According to Zach (2007, p.102), race and ethnicity have distinct differences; ethnicity may be based on cultural traditions, while race refers to physical appearance. Race and ethnicity are essential factors influencing the development of identity (Chavez and Guido-DiBrito (1999, p.40), and those concepts are necessary in understanding one’s self, society, and ancestry (Bernasconi, 2007, p.123). With this definition, it can be said that racial and ethnic ascriptions determine the identity of a person. As mentioned by Ross (2003, p.20), race, in the sociological context, is used as a technology in sorting people into different classes. As it relates to the Black subject, the word “race” becomes a symbol of historical and cultural injustice because of the prevailing misrepresentation of the African race, which signifies anger and dirt. While it can be said that race and ethnicity can be interpreted in different ways, those two concepts are closely intertwined as these determine the identity of a person or group. As the Blacks face issues such as racial discrimination and slavery, being Black means more than just a difference in color. What It Means To Be “Black” The term “Black” refers to those people with African decent; they are regarded as the “other” color. As this paper focuses on the race, identity, and ethnicity of the Black subject, it is necessary to provide readings on the identity of the Black. In the words of Du Bois (2006, p.9), being “Black” means containing within one’s self two conflicting personalities and ideals: “One ever feels his twoness,--an American, a Negro: two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder.” This duality of nature confronts Blacks as they struggle to fit into two societies. Frank Fannon, in his essay The Fact of Blackness, describes his experiences as a Black in the light of the “white” power. According to Fannon (1952, p.62), the African color seems like a corporeal malediction, which reminds Africans that there is more to color than its extrinsic value. The differences between the “white” and “black” seem like the difference between good and evil. As a result, a black man needs to struggle against the stereotype of the color, barbaric, and primitive, to attain his full freedom as a citizen. Relatively, these stereotypes become part of the Black identity, the identity designated to them by the “Whites.” Thus, being a black man in a white society entails a struggle as one has to defend his/her culture and ethnicity, at the same time struggle to adapt to the White society. While the duality of nature for African American creates identity confusion, socially prescribed roles also contribute to the overall personality of the Blacks. Socially prescribed roles influence one’s successful ethic life. In the context of cross-culturalism, social identities hinder people to exercise their ethnic preference in a way that it socially determined identities as incoherent and unjust (McPherson and Shelby, 2004, p.172). Additionally, as for the African American, social identities lead to education, wealth, and employment disparities. However, as the Blacks struggle against the racial demarcation set upon them by the White race, questions concerning the origin of such a racial demarcation emerge. The Historical Construction of the “Black” Subject The Black Identity and the Effects of Colonisation As mentioned by Smedley (1998, p.691), the Black identity, as it is known today, develops as a result of colonisation. Colonisation paves the way for global interaction, and it is one of the factors influencing cultural awareness. It is known that the goal of colonisation is territorial expansion, which gave colonisers access to more exploitable lands. Furthermore, recorded history shows that the condition of those colonised territories had been unfavorable as the colonisers demanded full subordination and sovereignty over them. Aside from this, the colonisers (American and European), in their intention to share their so-called superior values, encouraged the primitive and coloured races, especially Africans, to assimilate the superior characteristics. As colonisers proclaimed themselves masters, the Blacks were treated as possessions in the same way that the colonisers treated their lands, and other resources of their acquired territories; hence, slavery and oppression began to emerge. This situation creates a gap between the colonisers and natives as the latter impose their rules on their territories. This aspect of colonisation hinders the full development of ethnic groups as they would have to submit to their coloniser, adjust to their master’s culture, and forget their own culture and traditions. Although Africans have their own culture, language, and set of traditions, they were able to learn the ways of their colonisers; in the process, they changed their identity. However, as the external characteristics of Africans explicitly show their differences, their color is considered as a racial deficiency. For the reason that Africans are regarded as racially deficient, they occupy the lowest class in the society. Additionally, the thought of being racially deficient influences their perception of themselves. Throughout the years, Africans deemed as the lesser race, while the “whites” are considered as the superior race. The Black Diaspora and Public Policy Literally, the word diaspora refers to displacement and scattering. However, with the emergence of multiculturalism and hibridity, diaspora may also mean loss of identity (Hall, 2003, p.238). The slave system, as a form of diaspora, is a scheme created, by the masters, to exploit and degrade their slaves, thus, making them inferior in body and morale (Washington, 2000, p.20). In addition, the slave system also caused the Black Diaspora as it scatters the African race in a way that they are transported from continent to continent as slaves. Slavery had torn and scattered African families, as African slaves were required to do the bidding of their masters, even if it means separations (Bethel, p.193). In the context of hibridity and multiculturalism, it can be said that the Black diaspora continues in the form of cultural dispersion. However, although the policy of multiculturalism influences cultural dispersion, it also contributes to the increasing rate of racial transformation and integration. As the culture of the globalised world continues to spread today, cultures diversify at the same time grow more closer to each other through cross-culture marriages. The Black Nationalism, the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Liberation The ideology of Black Nationalism originates from the racial and ethnic conflicts experienced by the Blacks. According to Gordon (2003, pp.161-162), Black Nationalism, as an ideology and strategy of antagonism, expresses the combined efforts of abolitionists to settle alienation, slavery, and white supremacy. As Black Nationalism arises due to the unbearable condition of Blacks during the colonisation, this movement also contributes to the development of the US as a democratic nation. Accordingly, as the movement took hold, the US government passed the Declaration of Emancipation, which declared the Blacks as “free” citizens. The Declaration of Emancipation caused social change in America and spurred the Africans and African-Americans to assert their identity, freedom, and dignity as citizens (Cabral, 2003, p.56). Additionally, the declaration also caused the Civil War in a way that anti-slavery and pro-slavery contested on the potential benefits of freeing the slaves. After the American civil war, the leaders of the United States deemed it necessary to free the slaves, especially the Africans and African Americans to ensure that the nation will stand by the principles of its founding fathers, democracy. The Fourteenth Amendment to the American Constitution, ratified in 1868, was the first legislation that protected the national citizenship of African-Americans, and it also declared that all citizens of American shall have equal rights and protection by the law (Fredrickson, 2001, pp.3-4). With this legislation comes the freedom of the slaves and their right to exercise their culture so long as it would not violate the rights of other citizens of the country. The Black Race, Whiteness, and Racial Superiority As mentioned by Du Bois (2003, p.135), half a million slaves resided in the United States when the government declared that every citizen in the States deserves equal rights. For the reason, that, in one way or another, America became a part of the Black civilisation, the history of the Black is associated with the history of America. However, this does not mean that the Black race does not have its own civilisation and culture. Rather, the Blacks in Africa had developed a political and leadership system before the White colonisers came to impose their own rules. When the Africans were transported in American continent, they created a society of their own as they find adapting the White culture difficult. The Blacks had been under the rule of the white colonizers, American and European. While the history of the blacks had been marked with slavery and oppression, these issues also contribute to the rise of the Blacks. These issues influence the assertiveness of the Blacks with regard to their race, ethnicity, and identity For instance, Harris (1995, p.277) and Guess (2006, pp.653-655) propose that Whiteness, and Blackness, is a property in a way that race and identity come along with property rights. In this sense, it can be said that race, as a property, is accorded to a person by his ancestors. In the advent of cross-cultural marriages, questions regarding ones ethnic and cultural preference arise. Racial Assimilation The effects of the Black Movement had been contributive to the fall of racially defined institutions. In the past, there are institutions build specifically for Blacks and Whites. However, with the rise of Black Nationalism and other movements advocating equal rights and citizenship for all races in the United States, the “other” race seems to adapt the culture of the White, the major race. As the marginalised races, which include the Blacks, continue to assimilate the culture and traditions of the “major” race, minor races would potentially put to risk their own racial practice as they strive to fit in the society of the major race (McGary, 2007, p.156). Additionally, racial assimilation is also one of the ways to settle racial and ethnic disputes; it is one of the factors, which gave rise to the idea of multiculturalism. Additionally, racial assimilation also drives the birth of new races. As mentioned by Locke (2003, p.52), the Negro race has become diversified as cross-cultural marriages become rampant today. Thus, due to the intermingling of races, it is already difficult to distinguish a specific race by physical features alone. As this trend continues, the idea of Multiculturalism emerges. Cultural Pluralism Before the rise of cultural pluralism as a social concept, color-based classification had been rampant in societies worldwide. Cultural pluralism, in the words of Eisenberg (2000, p.386), refers to a diverse range of contemporary cultural theories such as multiculturalism and the politics of difference. These theories are applicable today because of the continuing assimilation and interconnection of races. Multiculturalism, as defined by Bekker and Lielde (2003, pp.119-120), refers to three social aspects: 1) public policy, 2) general social structure, and 3) status of cultural diversity. Multiculturalism, as public policy encourages citizens to accept the cultural diversity of the nation. Additionally, in the context of social status, a multicultural society advocates unity of races as well as acceptance of racial and cultural differences. Thus, as issues on racism continue to prevail in societies, it is necessary to appreciate the value of multiculturalism as it promotes unity amidst cultural diversity. The implementation of the multiculturalism policy in most European, American, and Asian countries allows ethnic groups to exercise their cultures and traditions, so long as it would not conflict the interests of the country. Additionally, this policy is also an action plan of the government to combat the haunting issue of racial segregation and discrimination. Aside from this, the ideas of hibridity (such as British-Pakistani, Japanese-American) and shifting identification also comes as a result of Multiculturalism (Bradley, 2000, pp.481-482; Corlett, 2007, p.225). In the context of hibridity and shifting identification, it can be said that races can be united and exist in harmony with each other. In short, multiculturalism, as a concept, combats colour-based classification, especially those of African descent who are regarded as the lowest race. Label Preference Labeling is one of the ways to identify oneself socially, but, it also influences the growth of racial gaps. Labels, in one way or another, contribute to the development of the identity confusion among those who are labeled as the "other" race. In the context of the "Black" subject, Boatswain and Lalonde (2000, pp.222-224) interviewed 101 Canadian students with African descent concerning their preferred labels. The research concludes that among other labels, Canadian students with African descent prefer to be called Black. Conclusion Taken together, the history of the Blacks can be traced in relation to the history of the "white." The Black subject covers many of the critical issues that confront the society today. Although it can be said that the laws passed currently advocate the protection of the rights of the Blacks, issues concerning their race, ethnicity, and identity still confront them as they struggle against the long-standing Black stereotype. Issues such as racial discrimination and segregation, ethnic diaspora, and cultural diversity continue to haunt the Blacks as those concern their identity as a person and as a group of people. On this account, it can be said that studying the origin of these issues may lead to a viable solution that would alleviate the plight of African Americans in the context of their identity and citizenship. Considering these things, it can also be said that the concepts of race, ethnicity, and identity affect the Blacks today as much as it affected them in the past. References Bekker, S. and Lielde, A. (2003) Is multiculturalism a workable policy in South Africa. International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 5(2), 135-147. Bernasconi, R. (2007) Ethnic Race: revisiting Alain Locke’s neglected proposal. In: J.J.E. Garcia, ed. Race or ethnicity?: on Black and Latino identity. New York: Cornell University Press. Ch.5. Bethel, E.R. (2007) The roots of African-American identity. 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