Theory and Practice in Management - Essay Example

1. Power and politics Power and politics are concepts that characterise the operations of different organisations. In order to gain clear understanding of these concepts, it is imperative to begin by explaining the meaning of the concepts. Power is mainly manifested in an organisation through vesting some level of authority in other people to oversee the operations of the other members of the organisation (Jackson & Schuler 2000). In order to achieve the set organisational goals, there is need to give certain individuals the responsibility to influence the performance of others. The levels of authority given to different individuals in an organisation are mainly determined by the structure of the organisation and the type of power used in any given organisation often determines the overall performance of the employees as well as its productivity levels. There are mainly six types of power that are popular and these include: coercion, position, reward, support, knowledge and interpersonal (Krausz 1986). Coercion is based on fear or punishment where the responsible authorities would seek to ensure that all the members comply with the given instructions while position is related to the status of a person in the hierarchy of the organisation. Reward is based on the capacity to offer incentives on good performance while support is concerned with influencing the involvement of peers or workmates. Knowledge is based on the skills possessed by an individual and interpersonal is mainly concerned with communication skills by a particular individual. Adaptive organisations which emphasize the flexibility to adapt to change can enhance creativity while bureaucratic, mechanistic or rigid structures will inhibit creativity Woodman (1995). An organisation which has a flat structure often promotes creativity and it helps promote easier communication and information sharing. In some cases, the appropriate reward system is essential for motivating employees to become innovative. When the employees have freedom and authority to participate in decision making process, they will have a positive attitude towards creativity and innovation. Open systems that promote participation and interaction also allow the free flow of information which in turn promotes mutual understanding among the employees. For instance, a case study of Ernest and Young showed that the organisation managed to increase employee retention level by about 9 % after the company began introducing open systems that gave autonomy to the workers while at the same time offering rewards (Jackson and Schuler (2000). There is a close link between power politics and conflict. As noted above, power has something to do with authority and politics is concerned with the structure of decision making. A conflict is an active disagreement between people with different opinions, values or interests (Kleynhans 2007). These three aspects are related in that they have a causal effect on one another. For instance, abuse of power and bad practice of organisational politics can lead to conflict where the impacts in most cases have far reaching consequences with regards to performance of the employees. The meaning of power from a postmodern perspective is mainly concerned with assignment of responsibilities in other people to influence the performance of the employees. In order to achieve the organisational goals, there is need to have a clear vision where some people have the authority to ensure that the operations of the subordinates conform to the set goals. Power is not seen as a source of exercising authoritarian rule over the subordinates where force and punishment are used but is seen as a source of positively influencing the employees in an organisation to improve their performance as a way of ensuring the achievement of set organisational goals. During the contemporary period, power is used as a method of persuading and motivating workers to put optimum efforts in their performance as a way of improving productivity. It can be concluded that power and authority are two interrelated concepts that characterise the smooth running of organisations. 2. Leadership- Leadership is a very important concept in the operations of the organisations since there are some people who should give direction to others. A clear outline of different leadership theories is very important as a way of understanding the whole concept as going to be explained below. There are many different types of leadership theories but the main theories of effective organisational leadership are democratic and trait theories. According to Jackson & Schuler (2000), the democratic theory is mainly influenced by democratic, participatory leadership style that is often displayed by the leader. On the other hand, the traits theory posits that there are expected qualities a leader ought to display in order to be able to adapt to change without many difficulties. A case study of Pearson Education can be used to illustrate this argument. According to Finlay (2000), Pearson Education adopted some strategies to improve its operations particularly introducing e-learning other than just publishing text books in 2000. This came as a realization that it operated in a dynamic and competitive environment hence the organisation’s top management realized that the leaders ought to possess some qualities that would allow them to quickly adapt to changes in the environment while at the same time influencing the workers to follow suit in order to avoid conflict. The organisation successfully implemented this strategy by involving the interested parties in the decision making. The leaders were accommodative in their decision making and today the organisation is a leader in terms of development of e-learning systems that can be used in schools. In this regard, the leaders must communicate a vision that is conducive to their operations and can encourage the followers to find solutions to problems in an innovative way. This can enhance positive performance of the subordinates if they are given high levels of autonomy. It can be noted that leaders who tend to empower individuals in decision making or solving problems in their own way while supporting them to develop autonomy through providing help or advice are more likely to produce better performance standards. The concepts of management and leadership are often confused in several ways. Thus, according to Kleynhans et al (2006), management is about coping with complexity to achieve organisational goals. In this particular case, managers ought to be good at planning, organising and making decisions and they should be able to analyse situations and find solutions to the problems that may exist. On the other hand, leadership is defined as the ability to influence a group of people towards the achievement of organisational goals (Robins S.P., Odendaal A.& Roodt G. 2001). Basically, leadership is concerned with the vision of the organisation while management is concerned with the practical implementation of that vision. It should be noted that leading is a function of management hence the two are somehow related. A leader instigates change and a manager implements and manages change. In the case of an organisation like Pearson Education, it can be noted that both the management and leadership tirelessly worked hand in hand in order to achieve the vision of the organisation which had decided to modify its operations in response to changes that were taking place in the competitive environment in which it operated. Another relationship between management and leadership is that a leader takes a leading role in developing and inspiring staff while the manager supervises staff. The aim would be the same, to achieve organisational goals. Basically, leadership and management are related somehow though they are often regarded as the same. The method that can be used to identify and evaluate contemporary approaches to the study of leadership is the ability to identify people with positive leadership qualities since these would be able to influence their followers. The leadership and the employees ought to work hand in hand in order to achieve the vision of the organisation. In the event that the organisation has underscored to expand its operations, there should be mutual understanding between the leaders and the followers to be able to implement the proposed changes. A leader often takes a leading role in developing and inspiring staff to improve their performance which in turn leads to increased productivity in terms of offering satisfactory products and services to the customers with the aim of achieving organisational goals. A leader should always display positive traits that can be emulated by the juniors who are followers in the company. 3. Corporate social responsibility and ethics The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) mainly draws from the idea that organisations do not exist in a vacuum but they operate in societies where there are people hence the need for them to act responsibly to the communities. Indeed, organisations have a social responsibility to fulfil as part of goodwill to different stakeholders that are impacted by its operations in different ways. The concept of corporate social responsibility maintains that businesses are part of the larger society in which they exist and are accountable to the society for their performance,” (Strydom 2004 p. 11). In other words, there is need for marketers to strike a fine balance between the needs and interests of customers, needs of the environment and the need for business to realise their profitable financial goals. This goes hand in hand with the concept of ethics, which is going to be highlighted below. In most cases, different people are either positively affected or negatively affected by the operations of an organisation hence the need for an organisation like IBM in this case to plough back part of the profits earned to the communities as a way of establishing and maintaining goodwill with its various stakeholders. Assisting the needy people in different communities is part of corporate socially responsibility which shows that the organisation is not primarily concerned with reaping the profits alone from its operations. Donations can be made to the less privileged members of the society or the organisation can embark on sponsoring project that are meant to be beneficial to the members of the community. Taking a leading role in campaigning for a clean environment is another good example of CSR that can be established by IBM as a way of positively contributing to the environment as a whole. Responsibility can as well be extended to institutions such as schools hospitals which benefit every member of the community. It can be noted that there are different competitors in this industry which prompts the organisation to be socially responsible to different communities in which it operates. In other words, there are various beneficiaries that can be identified to benefit from a particular sponsorship by the organization. Ethics are regarded as moral principles that often guide leaders in particular to make a distinction between something that is good or wrong in the process of dispensation of their job (Carrell et al 1995). Organisations should always consider ethics and values since they are primarily concerned with upholding the principles of honesty and truthfulness in the company’s endeavour to satisfy the needs of the customers. In this particular case, the question that would beg an answer particularly from the leaders of IBM would be; ‘Is it ethical to lie or deliberately misinform people?’ One of the basic tenets of ethics is honesty and truthfulness hence it is imperative for the organisation to strive to value its ethical considerations as much as possible for the betterment of their company. Strategic operations in an organisation that are premised on lies are bound to fail as they would be doubtful in the eyes of the potential customers. It is also very important for any organisation to observe the cultural values of the people in which it would be operating. In most cases, contravention of the norms of the society often leads to resistance to a product by customers and loss of goodwill which is counter productive to the company. Randall (1994 p.101) concurs that: “the better the relationship, the more trust that has been built up, the easier it will be to solve the difficult issues which may arise.” Therefore, observing the norms of the society is the foundation of establishing mutual understanding which may lead to the success of whatever product offered by that particular organisation. Organisations ought to consider ethics and values since they determine the success or failure of the organisation. 4. Gender in organisational Studies The concept of gender is very important in organisational studies since it ensures that there are limited cases of misunderstanding among the workmates. Gender based discrimination is in different forms such as unfair treatment as well as differences in salaries between man and women among others. According to Carrell et al (1995), gender based discrimination in an organisation is mainly caused by looking down upon the other workmates as inferior by the other workers on the basis of gender bias where there is no equal and fair treatment even in the event that those discriminated also have the same qualifications as well as well as positions in the organisation. Gender based discrimination is often rife in patriarchal communities where women in most cases are looked down upon regardless of their positions in the organisation. Legally, many countries have statutory regulations which are against work place discrimination which state that it is against the law to deny a person a job or a job advantage because of race, gender or other related issues (Armstrong 1999). Jackson & Schuler (2000) suggest that organisations as well as individuals are affected in different ways by gender based discrimination. Discrimination can be in form of differences that exist in salary structures between man and women and this causes dissatisfaction particularly on the affected people. Continued gender based discrimination has various impacts on the organisation as a whole. There is likely to be conflict among the workers where gender discrimination exists in an organisation. One notable effect of gender based discrimination is poor performance by the affected workers which is likely to negatively impact on the overall performance of the whole organisation which in turn can result in decline of business. Concerted efforts are ought to be made in order to carefully deal with issues of gender based discrimination which can derail progress if not properly managed. Another likely effect of gender based discrimination on the organisation is staff turnover. In essence, employee turnover refers to the amount of time a worker spends with an organisation from the first day at the new job to the last (Kleynhans et al 2007). Thus employee turnover can be measured by the time employees stay with an organisation. For instance, if many employees leave the organisation after a short stint, it means that there is higher employee turnover. Research has shown that the lion’s share of staff turnover is a result of dissatisfaction where workers leave the organisation and it has been noted that this can be avoided if the organisation embarks on fair practices that are likely to motivate the workers to continue serving the organisation. Jackson and Schuler (2000), posit to the effect that in most cases, women are more likely than men to leave the company to work elsewhere if they are discriminated. A case study of Ernest and Young showed that the organisation managed to reduce staff turnover of women at senior management level by about 7% after the company began making serious effort to increase retention rates. On the other hand, the effect of gender based discrimination on individuals is dissatisfaction. In most cases, a satisfied employee is self motivated hence productive which spells profitability of the company. Employees are the backbone of every organisation hence improving their performance as well as putting measures that reduce staff turnover are major factors that determine success of business during the contemporary period. Employees who are treated fairly and are given the autonomous privilege to make decisions, which is a great incentive since they will develop a sense of belonging, are likely to stay longer in the organisation. In order to reduce the effects of gender based discrimination on individuals, it is imperative that the workers should be motivated and given fair treatment. Bibliography Armstrong M. (1999), Human Resources Management Practic. 7th Edition. NJ Kogan Page Limited. Bates B. et al (2005). Business management: Fresh Perspectives. Cape Town. Pearson Education. Carrell, R. et al (1995), Human Resources Management: Global Strategies for managing a diverse workforce, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall, USA. Finlay, P. (2000). Strategic Management: An Introduction to business and corporate strategy. Harlow. Pearson Education. Jackson, S.E. & Schuler R. (2000). Managing Human Resources: A Partnership Perspective. NY. South Western College Publishing. Kleynhans R. et al (2007), Human Resource Management: fresh perspectives, Prentice Hall, S.A. Randall G. (1994). Trade Marketing Strategies: The Partnership between manufacturers, brands and retailer. London. Butterworth-Heinemann. Robins S.P., Odendaal A.& Roodt G. (2001), Organisational Behaviour, Pearson Education Strydom J. (2004), Marketing, 3rd Edition, Juta & Co Ltd, SA. Krausz R.R. (1986). Excerpts from “Power & Leadership in organisations: transactional analysis Journal” Volume 16. No 2. April 1986. Accessed on 29 April 2009 from: http://www.ta-tutor.com/webpdf/pwr05.pdf Woodman, R.W., (1995). Managing creativity, Creativity action in organisations: Ivory tower visions and real world voices. D.A. Sage Publications. Read More