Microfinance Institutions - BRAC - Essay Example

Running header: Microfinance s: BRAC Your Executive Summary This report on microfinance institutions (MFIs) is based on a study one of the largest nongovernmental organisations in the world, BRAC. This Bangladesh-based microfinance organisation pioneered the concept of ‘banking the un-bankable’ by targeting the extremely poor households in rural and slums of the Bangladesh and branching to other similar nations. The report first looks at the background of the organisation from inception as a humanitarian organisation initially assisting destitute Bangladeshi after its war of independence to evolve as monolith encompassing banking, health, educational and enterprise support institutions. The report examines the diverse innovative strategies employed by BRAC to reach out at the very poor in segregated regions of the country. The various diverse methods include TUP, STUP, and IGVGD all aimed at ensuring the ‘ultra poor’ people benefit from its programs. The report explores the various diverse programmes from Asia to Africa including education, health services, agricultural and other commercial enterprises. The report also traces the backward and forward linkages employed by BRAC to enhance the potency of its programs. The issue of gender targeting is also scrutinised and outlined in the report: why BRAC and other MFIs deliberately target women. The report extensively evaluates the impact of gender targeting, its effectiveness and negative attributes. Lastly, the report outlines the wider impacts of BRAC and other MFIs particularly on poverty alleviation, women rights awareness, and public health alleviation using empirical data gathered by the MFIs in the field. Table of Contents REFERENCES 18 Introduction Microfinance is the concept of providing financial services to the poor and microcredit through small loans to these people who normally lack assets used as collateral. Microfinance is however not confined to credit services alone but also support services including technical assistance, training and other facilities. Microfinance programs have been identified as one of the key approaches that can be used to assist in poverty eradication mostly in developing countries targeting those deemed un-bankable by the mainstream commercial banks. These marginalised groups are usually found in the desperately poor rural households or city slums, many lacking even the basic asset of own land or other viable assets (Arun et al, 2009). One country that has perfected this concept is Bangladesh where over 1,000 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) provide this valuable service to the rural poor. Among them, the most successful has been BRAC, which has had a profound impact on not only Bangladeshi people but also globally as it exports its unique microfinance institutions (MFIs) projects to other regions in Asia and Africa. Background BRAC was founded in 1972 by Dr. Fazle Hasan Abed as Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee but was later renamed to just BRAC after assuming international dimensions. Its primary objective was that of assisting millions of Bangladeshi masses subjected to abject poverty after a devastating liberation war. Initially assisting in humanitarian and environmental disasters prevalent in the region, it has now evolved to become the worlds largest NGO operating in 69,000 villages and over 1,000 urban slums. BRAC asserts that it covers over 110 million poor people mainly rural women expending over US$485 million (Arun et al, 2009). BRAC has categorised them as the ‘ultra poor’ chronically and extremely deprived people needing urgent humanitarian assistance to enhance there meagre assets hence alleviate their ‘dirt poor’ status. These people survive on less than 1,805 kcal. For the extremely ‘ultra poor’ and for the poor at between 1,805 and 2,122 kcal per day, though the national nutritional recruitment is 2,122 kcal. Sources of Capital and Outreach Although policy approaches on microfinance strategies revolve around exclusive support of these groups, many of the initially microfinance based financial institutions are increasing evolving into mainstream commercial banking practices, generating credit to the more stabilised sectors of the society hence deviating from their core responsibilities (Arun and Adjei, 2009). The main sources of capital for microfinance organisations are the resident governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the International Fund for Agricultural Development Fund (IFAD) and other national and international philanthropic donors (Arun and Adjei, 2009). Although BRAC enjoys funding from multinational and international organisations, it nevertheless generates own funds (over 80 percent) through its diverse enterprises including banking, education, dairy, handcraft and poultry among others (BRAC, 2008). BRAC has now established a banking division, technology institute, and a university within Bangladesh and spread to six countries including Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Uganda, Tanzania and Southern Sudan, similarly BRAC has branches in US and UK [see Figure:1]. In its microfinance programmes, BRAC is able to provide collateral-free loans to poor rural families, mostly women through unique group-structured units, which are almost default free. The financing is disbursed through a credit-plus approach whereby the borrowers are assisted through enhanced training on utilisation to enact self-sustaining economic programmes. In education, BRAC serves over 1.4 million children with 65 percent of them being girls while a further 100 million are served in the health sector (Clinton Global Initiative, 2006). BASIC OPERATIONAL FEATURES Major Characteristics of Microfinance The major characteristics of microfinance offered by MFIs include: Minimal credit funds offered - only small units Credit offered is collateral-free (guaranteed by other members or compensatory funds) Provision of more and higher credit on repayment Rigorous administration and secure supervision Sheltered investments merchandise Short credit repayment period – one to three years only Weekly or monthly repayment options available merge the concept of communal growth with economic intermediation Conventional financial lending institutions generally require tangible collateral that is three to four times the value of the desired credit. This has therefore normally locked out the poor citizens in developing countries from accessing credit and hence leaving them in perpetual pitiable abject poverty. Among the poor, women are exceptionally constrained due to their lack of material assets because of communal cultural practices that deny them the right to own property or engage in personal economic initiatives (KIVA, 2009). Microcredit programs launched by public funded organisations both governmental and non-governmental have sought to fill this gap by advancing credit to deliberately formed women groups who are trained in economic generating activities that eventually help alleviate their poverty and that of their family members. The microfinance programmes therefore target mostly women groups who have been found to be more reliable and susceptible to the loan schemes unlike their male counterparts (Mushtaque et al, 2006); (Matin, 2005); (Smillie, 2009). According BRAC (2005), 97 percent of the organisation’s clients are ‘the poor and the poorest’, those enrolling in the core microfinance programme, Dabi via the Income Generation for Vulnerable Groups Development (IGVGD) programme. BRAC has successfully targeted an agricultural based credit programme named ‘Unnati’ since they believe that poverty alleviation is more effective if directed at the rural farmer groups. Nevertheless, non-agricultural credit programmes Progoti are extended to other deserving groups (Matin, 2005). Abed (2000) classifies the poor into three main classes, ‘the moderate poor, ultra poor, and vulnerable poor according to per capita calorie intake…those below the 1800-calorie line are generally defined as ultra poor’(Pg.8). BRAC has evolved a system whereby the beneficiaries of the programmes gradually graduate from one stage to the next, starting from Badi to Unnati, and then Progoti. This is exemplified by the over 70 percent beneficiaries of the programmes are derived from the poorest sectors of the population, who then graduate to Dabi microfinance programme; 13 percent of these members then graduate to Progoti, while 40 percent graduate to the Unnati programme. The Ultra Poor Programs (CFPR/TUP) One of BRAC’s programs targeted at the poorest citizens in Bangladesh in its programme of ‘Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction or Targeting the Ultra Poor Programme (CFPR/TUP) aims at effectively training the very poor in appropriate skills that can help them acquire own resources to alleviate their abject poverty situations. This enables them to join the first stage of BID and gradually graduate to the next stages of financial independence and self-reliance. These ultra poor people are characterised by lack of: a) Access to employment prospect as generated by the country’s prescribed institutions; including the manufacturing, services or tertiary sectors; b) Were unable to take advantage of the ‘green revolution’ sweeping through the country during the 1980s and 1990s; c) Partake in self-employment openings or informal labour prospects created by the various innovative microfinance institutions in the country and; d) Government and non-governmental programmes normally have minimal impact on the ultra poor people due their status The ultra-poor people are constrained by lack of individual, monetary and social assets capacity that could assist them takes advantage of the various poverty programs. Similarly due to their poor status, they are often confined in ethnic/social or topological areas that are secluded from the mainstream society. BRAC’s TUP programme launched in 2002 is ‘laddered strategic linkage’ that covers the ultra poor people in a methodical concentrated and wide-ranging financially viable, communal and health facets projects aimed at developing sustainable occupation [see Table: 3, Appendix]. BRAC has categorised this ultra poor people into two: Specially Targeted Ultra Poor (STUP) who are covered with the comprehensive package named Special Investment Programme that encompass asset grants [see Table 2, Appendix for illustration] and; The BDP or BRAC Development Programme for Ultra Poor or Other Targeted Ultra Poor (OTUP). This group does not receive asset allocations but only training in appropriate skills, technical assistance and health assistance. TUP has thus developed an integrated approach that involves both sponsorship (asset allocation, proficiency instruction) and defensive approaches (reward or medical services) in addition to tackling the communal and political aspects. BRAC’s TUP programmes are advocated through two main stratagems: ‘pushing down’ and ‘pushing out’ (Matin, 2005). In the ‘pushing down’ approach, TUP aims at effectively pushing the improvement assistance programmes to the ultra-poor through systematic contributory strategies using study based techniques. In certain carefully selected geographical regions some specific conditions have to be met prior to selecting the correct households with ultra poor people for a double year investment plan that encompass asset allocations, training and medical assistance (Arun et al, 2009). In the ‘pushing out’ approach, TUP programs ‘push out’ the realm of prevailing poverty with appropriate programmes that are more effective than those currently there. The TUP programs conversely direct their efforts from handouts by dealing with the communal issues that particularly disempowered the poor especially women by establishing effective linkages with other groups or assistance programs. Some of the major constraints encountered included, overdependence on BRAC assistance rather than the VOs; VO members begrudge the TUP recipients since they had to repay their allocations; allocations to women were stolen due to some resentments (Arun et al, 2009). BRAC responded by setting up Village Assistance Committees (VACs) which were supported by local elites in voluntary programmes. TUP has successfully led to members gaining many assets including: monetary (savings and credit), tangible (poultry, livestock etc), land, societal gains, population and health including maternal, education and mortality. One of BRAC’s flourishing programs in reaching the poorest members of the community is the Income Generation for Vulnerable Groups Development (IGVGD) program. A concerted effort between the Bangladesh government, the World Food Program (WFP) and BRAC, it has proved to be the most successful in poverty alleviation. The program has assisted over one million participants’ mostly rural women who had minimal or no income prior to joining the program to become self-sufficient (CGAP, 2001). INNOVATIONS IN SERVICE DELIVERY The IGVD program is structured whereby members are initially inducted in an 18-month long needy women-led households feeding program for those facing starvation. This was after BRAC realised that some of the ultra poor people were unable to enrol in their projects due to lack of basic human needs. The presence of food grain handouts encouraged these extremely poor individuals to participate in BRAC’s programs by initially catering for their urgent consumption requirements but later engaging them in practical education in appropriate income generating skills as well as obtaining loan facilities. The IGVD program The IGVD program like the TUP programmes targets households run by rural women with the following criteria: Must be headed by women, either widows or deserted ladies Owning less than half an acre of terrain Income of less than 300 takas (US$6) monthly An additional criterion involves selecting approximately 90 percent of women on food rations with the exception of the most physically incapacitated. The selected members are immediately enrolled in training programs mostly on practical farming activities for about six months. A survey by The Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest (CGAP) has revealed that among those members engaged in BRAC’s programmes in the ultra poor or hardcore poorest households, 65 percent managed to graduate to microfinance projects by year 2000. This compares favourably to those graduating from other programs including Grameen Bank at 22 percent, Proshika at 7 percent, local NGOs at 16 percent and other NGOs at 2 percent thus BRAC has therefore managed to successfully shift two-thirds of the desperately poor rural women to more economic viable income generating projects (CGAP, 2001). BRAC has expanded its programmes to encompass financial advancement, health, education and human rights. According to the founder Dr. F H Abed, ‘BRAC has not confined itself only to financial services but also looks at people’s livelihood, prospects, possibilities and how to create opportunities for poor people to improve their livelihood’ (JP Morgan, 2007, p. np). The founder of the highly respected Grameen Bank of Bangladesh Muhammad Yunus likewise asserts that ‘Poverty is not created by the poor, it is created by the structures of society...given the support of financial capital, however small, the poor are fully capable of improving their lives’(KIVA, 2009). Agriculture Programs In agriculture, BRAC trains groups of selected farmers in advanced innovative farming methods and who are then tasked with educating at least twenty other farmers on the same practices. BRAC has also researched extensively on enhanced quality seeds as well as better markets to improve self-reliance integrated with BRAC’s microfinance operations. BRAC has initiated a $15 million poverty alleviation programme in the West African countries of Sierra Leone and Liberia after their destructive civil wars. The BRAC initiative is directed at various microfinance, health, training and agricultural approaches funded through grants, equity and debt. BRAC uses village organisations (VOs) targeting both economic and social needs (BRAC, 2009). Afghanistan Programs In Afghanistan, BRAC has initiated similar development programmes that encompass agriculture, municipal governments, women projects, education and microfinance. BRAC has trained community health workers (CHW) comprehensively to also impart knowledge to others to eradicate public health concerns and other dangerous contagious diseases. However, in Afghanistan, BRAC faces a number of challenges primarily due to the difficult complex mountainous terrain that hinders effective movements, poor education due to many years of conflict (school enrolment stood at 15 percent girls and 42 percent boys by 2006) and the most daunting being that of communal taboos that bar women from requesting medical assistance. Nonetheless, BRAC has managed to engage community groups by training CHWs actively seek out between 150-200 households to prevent basic curable diseases (Mushtaque et al, 2006). Health Services BRAC’s has incorporated a health service division in its microfinance groups whereby women are educated on health issues for two weeks and then tasked with training between 150-200 other members on a monthly basis. The nature of training includes on methods of securing medicinal products that they can retail to supplement their earnings for such basic ailments in the territories like TB, malaria, maternity, and adolescent rearing. In Bangladesh, BRAC has collaborated with Visionspring to distribute reading glasses engaging over 80,000 members effectively covering almost 100 million citizens. Through its research division, BRAC is able to appropriately appraise and monitor its many programs thus greatly assisting as in maternal, infant mortality and fertility rates monitoring (bracresearch.org, 2009). Backward and Forward Linkages BRAC has effectively developed backward and forward linkages strategies through an inclusive set of services, which enhance the supply chains used by the members in any of the diverse BRAC divisions, invested in. Backward linkages encompass training on advanced procedures as in agriculture, or cottage industries, new technology, seeds, breeds among others. Forward linkages comprise of warehousing services for finished products, preservation, repairs and technical support. BRAC has therefore initiated several projects that are indirectly linked to others development strategies including BRACs Dairy and Food Project that offers a market for the VOs members who have dairy cattle hence giving market to them while also requiring technical support like AI services. Nature of Target Groups in Terms of Gender and Poverty According to studies by Grameen Bank (1998) based on Bangladesh’s three main microfinance institutions, Grameen Bank, BRAC and RD-12, the impact of a ten percent microcredit borrowing by women enhanced household spending by 0.40 percent which was twice that of men. Similarly, the effect on children welfare enhancement was more pronounced in women borrowing as compared to that of men as well as the nutritional improvement. Other positive attributes include enhanced household net worth, fertility levels, and reduces contraceptive use (Khandker, 1998); (Smillie, 2009). Wide-Ranging Impact on Households Most microfinance ventures target women due to the nature of their marginalisation within the poverty-stricken regions. Nevertheless, women have been found to be more conservative in their investment strategies as compared to men while empowering women has been found to have far wide-ranging impact on households. Thus, it has been observed that women tend to have a far much better repayment ratio on credit advanced as opposed to men. In spite of their discrimination, women contribute more to household incomes than their male counterparts do though they are overrepresented in the poorest sectors of society. According to the CEO of Women’s World Banking (WWB), the biggest microfinance network groupings, women repayments usually exceed 95 percent while most microfinance institutions (MFI) have successfully evolved into commercial banks, serving as vehicles for women empowerment and enrichment (Gromis, 2009). At BRAC, which disburses US$ 1.2 billion loans to over 8.5 million people the repayment has been recorded at 99.29 percent while 98 percent of the borrowers are women employing 120,000 staff by 2008 (Philanthropedia, 2009). BRAC in conjunction with the MasterCard Foundation launched a US$19.6 million novel African program in Uganda that targeted two million poor residents in innovative economic generating projects mainly in the rural areas. The program similarly will target poor women in the urban slums living on less than two meals a day effectively alleviating rural poverty (MasterCard Foundation, 2008). Similarly, BRAC in Southern Sudan has established microfinance projects in the Juba area targeting almost 5,000 poor women who are organised into 221groups disbursing approximately US$0.8 million to 3,000 members with a 100 percent recovery rate (Khandker, 1999). Negative Impacts The fact that microfinance targets women has been found to have mostly very positive impacts on household incomes but unfortunately in some instances therefore have been reported some negative impacts within traditional family set up particularly those in the male dominated societies. This therefore tends to generate some negative impacts hence their contribution (women) is limited to some extent (Mayoux, 2006). According to the Office of Development Effectiveness(ODE) study on sex oriented aggression and appraisal as quoted in UNESCAP (2007), ‘Although micro-credit strengthens women’s ability to stand up to family violence, in some cases it has increased violence against women and family break-ups ‘(Pg.123). Rogers et al (2008) also cite other negative impacts including expenditure decision that eventually favour the dominant men and male children sidelining the female members of the family. Because the woman will ultimately be responsible for the repayments, poverty will only be further entrenched as the funds are utilised non- constructively. Resistance to this male domination will only lead to extreme tensions within the household. Other negative impacts are associated with confining the women to lowly strata of production due to their enslavement by the repayment structures, which may be prohibitive to the low-income groups. Rogers et al (2008) therefore advocate for the female-based programmes adequately address gender issues within the projected community to avoid undue tensions or further entrenching poverty within the targeted populations. Hunt & Kasynathan (2002) argue that in the dispersion and utilisation of the microfinance credit advanced using only gender criteria to women by the various development oriented NGOs and other groups, ‘women are merely ‘post-boxes’: passing on the full amount of their loans directly to their husbands, sons or sons-in-law, with little or no access to the income generated and receiving back only enough money to make weekly loan repayments’ (Pg. 72). Nonetheless, BRAC’s programmes have been found to be highly successful despite reports that 53 percent of the female recipients generally hand over their proceeds to their husbands. Women awareness of their rights has appreciably improved with progressively greater number asserting themselves within the male dominated region. Greater Impact on Poverty Alleviation An Asian Development Bank survey in 2007 reaffirmed the importance of gender as the basis of dispensing funding to poverty-stricken households. The report established that women have a major role in family income generation; more say in family spending decisions and investments; able to individually generate a higher income than their spouse hence able to make better investment decisions. Women are able to assimilate better education and skills in income generating activities through their circle of friends or groups; and able to acquire more assets as compared to their husbands (ADB, 2007). Studies by Oxfam Community Aid Abroad (2002) in S.E. Asian countries indicate that the lack of access by women to markets constrain their effective control of the disbursements hence the discreet control of the supposedly women targeted loans by their male family members. Women in effect gain very little from their labour as exemplified by Sri Lankan women engaged in paddy husking who extensively work in the fields but have no real control of the earnings (Hunt & Kasynathan, 2002). Apart from the traditional socio-cultural factors hindering women empowerment, the existing legislative laws (particularly inheritance laws) also bar many women from owning or controlling own assets in many developing countries especially in S.E. Asia. Kabeer (1998) describes a negative and positive trend in women who generally spend the generated income on ‘household consumption’ but nevertheless found to be more likely to purchase ‘security related assets’ like land as opposed to male borrowers who tend to seek more investments (Pg.28). Studies by a local NGO in Bangladesh Proshika however indicate many positive impacts of microfinance on female members especially in areas of reduced early marriages practices, education for girls, mobility and general awareness of individual rights as less gender violence has been recorded (UNDP, 1995). BRAC in other collaborative ventures with Ain O Shalish Kendra (ASK) and Bangladesh National Women Leader’s Association (BNWLA) has initiated various ventures aimed at empowering women against social and economic discrimination particularly against rape, domestic violence and the vicious acid attacks common among Bangladesh society. This has consequently generated a programme with two phases: the Social Development module and the Human Rights and Legal Services module. In the Social Development module, the groups endeavour to cultivate individual and social political assets of the poor mostly women by capacity building through awareness programs like education and communal mobilisation. BRAC has developed grassroots programmes at ward level through women organisations like Polli Shomaj (Rural Society) and Union Shomaj (Union Society) used by rural women to propagate their rights. The Human Rights and Legal Services module likewise attempts to educate women on their legal rights by engaging them in various deeds including popular theatre inform of Human Rights and Legal Education (HRLE) programme organised through the Village Organisation members. Alternatively, BRAC provides access to lawyers or law enforcement officials by setting up clinics, which encourage women to be more assertive of their rights. WIDER IMPACTS Most of BRAC’s microfinance programmes have been aimed at ensuring that the poorest citizens are emancipated from overreliance on government or NGOs handouts or dependence on wage labour as their main source of income to become self sufficient hence curtail the problems of unemployment, disease, hunger, dependency and other poverty syndromes (Arun et al, 2009). One of the greatest impacts of BRAC among the poor communities in the world apart from economic empowerment is in areas of education and health. In Bangladesh, BRAC has established approximately 37,500 non-formal primary schools in the disengaged regions in all 64 districts of the country. The five-year primary education course is provided to the rural poor children unable to access education facilities due o abject poverty of their parents. Similarly using over 70,000 voluntary health workers, BRAC is able to server over 31 million people in Bangladesh. Most of BRAC’s income or funding is internally generated though various economic activities and ventures as well as the microcredit divisions (BRAC, 2008). BRAC’s use of Village Organisations (VOs) has enabled it reach over four million beneficiaries through layered graduated level of loan acquisitions to the poorest populations. Among the various projects enhanced through its microfinance programmes including farming activities and mechanized enterprises, include products like Bull Station, Feed Mill, broiler manufacture and promotion, seed manufacture, dispensation, soil analysis, BRAC garden centre, fisheries, Aarong, a commercial handicraft production, BRAC Dairy and Food Project, and BRAC Salt among others. This has enhanced the economic, social and health as well as the nutritional levels of the poor people [see Appendix Table: 2]. Microfinance programmes predominantly targeting women have come to be viewed by many development agencies as the most effective vehicle for poverty eradication due to the effect on economic development among the very poor in the population (Hunt & Kasynathan, 2002, Pg.71). BRAC’s founder and Chairman F H Abed (2000) has categorised the various microfinance approaches undertaken by development NGOs and other institutions into three components: ‘credit alone’, ‘credit plus’ or ‘credit with social development’ (pg. 9). Credit-alone strategy asserts that the poor need some form of credit, which by itself will assist them rise above the poverty level through investment activities. However, Abed argues that economic development on its own cannot solve the problems afflicting the poor due to the predominance of elevated levels of poor health among these groups hence a microfinance program should have a dual role as in credit plus’ or ‘credit with social development’. Abed (2000) dispels the myth that ‘the poor cannot save’ arguing that with appropriate structures or saving modules in the financial institutions, the poor can equally make savings. This has been exemplified in Bangladesh whereby at the microfinance based banking group, Grameen, over 8 billion Bangladesh taka (US$1 = BDT 55) while among the microfinance based NGOs approximately BDT 6 million was saved by 2000. This can even be more enhanced with appropriate innovative products. There have been concerns over the proliferation of microfinance institutions in developing countries that have abandoned the noble ideals of providing credit to the very poor but now espouse a parallel banking system, which has no room for the collateral less masses. High interest rates charged to the borrowers negate their image as MFIs hence leading to much negative perception by borrowers and analysts as donors withhold funding due to endemic corruption among these institutions (Abed, 2000). Conclusion The use of microfinance institutions as vehicles for economic development among impoverished households in many developing countries have been found to very effective. MFI cover the gap left by conventional financial institutions that shun the asset deprived individuals by offering them both credit and other diverse support services. In this regard BRAC has excelled in offering not only financial services but also educational, health and other components of economic and social development that enhance the plight of women by alleviating household poverty through practical and far reaching programs to the furthest corner of rural areas. BRAC has evolved a system of layered graduated economic growth, which has emancipated many rural women to become asset owning and self-conscious of their rights. MFIs however have been found to be not comprehensive enough in eliminating poverty; hence, more government and NGO assistance is needed in other forms to complement the efforts of the likes of BRAC. Some MFIs have however taken advantage of the situation to evolve a parallel banking system that does not really cater for the needs of the poor while evading regulatory guidelines. Nonetheless, BRAC programs are commendable and should be rolled out to more developing nations especially those that practice or have gender discrimination. REFERENCES Abed F H (2000) Microfinance NGOs in Bangladesh Growth, Impact and Challenges. Asian Regional Conference - INASIA and CDF: BRAC Centre for Development Management (BCDM) Pg.1-19 Rajendrapur, Bangladesh: BCDM BRAC West Africa (2009) Fact Sheet: BRAC West Africa Program in Sierra Leone and Liberia. New York. Arun J K (2009) Microfinance Programmes and the Poor: Whom Are They Reaching? Evidence from Ghana. Manchester: BWPI Working Paper 72; Brooks World Poverty Institute. 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UNDP (1995) Human Development Report 1995, United Nations Development Programme, Oxford University Press New York and Oxford. UNESCAP (2007) United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Economic and Social Survey for Asia and the Pacific Pg. 123 Appendices Figure 1 Source: BRAC/Shehzad Noorani, 2009 Table: 1 Table 2 Table: 3 Read More