Great Works of Western Philosophy - Essay Example

Great Works of Western Philosophy Plato and Aristotle Plato’s dialogues contain some of the most significant philosophical arguments of Socrates. For instance, Meno is a dialogue between Socrates and a young man Meno that includes the Socratic philosophy on the nature of virtue. The discussion is mainly aimed at defining the concept of virtue, explaining whether virtue can be taught, acquired by practice or by any other means. In the process of explanation, Socrates takes help of some epistemological themes including his theory of recollection. Whereas Phaedo describes Socrates’ discussion on the nature of afterlife. The theory of recollection is also discussed in this dialogue along with the Socratic philosophy on the immortality of the soul. Socrates offers four arguments to explain the immortality of the soul: Cyclical argument: Human body is subject to physical death, but the soul never perishes. It is indestructible. Theory of recollection: Learning is a way of recollecting things we know from the previous life as the soul carries it along. Affinity argument: The soul can never die although the body is mortal. Argument from form of life: All the things participating in Forms never perish. As the soul is also included, it is immortal. Considered to be one of the earliest dialogues, Plato’s Euthyphro provides Socrates’ argumentation on the notion of piety. Socrates uses analogical arguments to explain the meaning of piety. In order to understand what is piety, it is important to analyze logically the difference between good and bad, just and unjust, beautiful and ugly. In other words, piety is not about religious reverence. Socrates insists on careful reasoning to be considered as the main motivating factor of intellectual independence. While defining the parameters of piety, the concept of morality is also discussed at length. Morality is about individual choices and practices. That means there can be no goodness or badness in the abstract. Because, the definition of goodness or badness can differ from person to person, society to society. The relativist argument explains that a true definition of morality includes the very essence of the term because its notion differs from people to people. Therefore, a universally accepted definition of morality will encompass all the essential characteristics possessed by it. Perceived in the same light, the concept of piety also cannot be an abstract idea. The notion can be defined universally only when it encompasses all the essential qualities of the term. Aristotle’s philosophical theories are most importantly derived from his Metaphysics. Here, Aristotle addresses various primary philosophical ideas in different books named by Greek letters such as Alpha or A (Book 1), little alpha or  (Book 2) and so on. Aristotle contemplates that the highest form of knowledge is wisdom, the knowledge of causes and principles. His logical theory distinguishes between homonymous (multiple unrelated meanings), synonymous (several related meanings) and paronymous (somewhat different from a term of same root with similar meaning) terms. Aristotle makes several distinctions of various categories based on substance as the fundamental requirement for the understanding of the categories. Thus, substance is the most significant factor that reveals the true identity of things. Substance is the permanent property of an object without which the object does not contain what it has. Aristotle argues that the individual as an independent thing is the first substance. Its characteristic(s) that makes it understood as a member of a class of such independent things is the second substance. Aristotle discusses four causes namely a) form, definition, essence, b) matter, c) efficient cause, and d) purpose. According to Aristotle, forms are inherent in things. The notion of the first matter is the most elemental for an object. Things go through a cycle of change, therefore, it is important for things to have a first matter in case it wants to come back to the beginning. As things are constantly moving, substance contains the permanent property of the object, thus forming its essential identity. Proofs of the existence of God One of the most debated philosophical thoughts is the seeking of evidences for the existence of God. The topic has been argued by various schools of science, philosophy and theology. Two of the greatest philosophers contributing to this debate are Saint Anselm and Aquinas, Italian philosophers and theologians. Anselm provides ontological argumentation on the existence of God in his Proslogion. The main arguments of Anselm are the following: God is the greatest being, a being than which nothing greater can be conceived of. God exists in our understanding and reality as well. Therefore, God truly exists. Anselm argues that the existence of God provides two possibilities to ponder: either a) God exists in reality, or b) there is no God at all. It is evident that the notion of God exists in our understanding as a Supreme Being than which nothing greater can be conceived of to exist. At the same time, it is also important that something that exists as a cognitive concept can have a better possibility to be existing in reality too. Therefore, if God exists in the mind, it is very much possible that there is a real existence of Gods. Therefore, God exists in both our understanding as well as in reality. God is the most perfect being possible to have existed, and nothing greater than God can be conceived to be existing. But this point brought many criticisms against Anselm’s ontological view on the existence of God. Critics argue that if God is the most perfect being, then there should be acceptance for the point that there is a Perfect Island existing. At the same time, critics also argue for the existence of Devil as that than nothing worse can be conceived. Another Italian philosopher and theologian Aquinas discusses the existence of God in his most acclaimed work Summa Theologiae or ‘Summary of Theology’. Aquinas discusses five arguments or five proofs while explaining the concept of the existence of God. First proof: According to the argument of motion, every object undergoes change in accordance with something existing in reality. This indicates that there has to be a first mover from where everything starts. This mover is known as God. Second proof: There are causes, and therefore, effects are present. That means, there has to be a first cause in order for a last cause to exist. This efficient first cause is known as God. Third proof: It is impossible for things to exist eternally. Every necessary thing on earth has a cause for its existence, and this is known as God. Fourth proof: Everything has its own degree of goodness, truth and nobility in it. The greatest thing is the prime cause of all such things. Therefore, it is possible to conceive of a perfect being, which is known as God. Fifth proof: Everything has its own purpose or reason to exist and operate. That means there is something more intelligent that operates all natural things as part of a plan. This is known as God. Aquinas argues that God being the first mover and source of all motion on earth, God exists in all circumstances, and is the most efficient cause of all necessary things. Aquinas’ argumentation is known as the cosmological argument on the existence of God. However, critics are concerned about the notion of cause in Aquinas’ argument. As Hume criticizes, the concept of a cause is the one we derive from our observation of particular things. Therefore, we have no reason to suppose that the totality of things has a cause. The explanation of the existence of things itself indicates that we presuppose the existence of an ultimate being (or God). Moreover, critics argue that if we admit that every effect must have a cause, then there can be no exception such as an ‘uncaused cause’. Aquinas’ cosmological argument is also considered to be related to Anselm’s ontological argument. While some criticizes the previous by addressing the cosmological argument as the introduction to Anselm’s views, others strongly support that Aquinas’ views are an improvement of the latter’s ontological argument. Augustine Medieval logician Augustine’s Confessions is his most rewarded philosophical work. His views are not inspired by any Greek logic, Plato or Aristotle. Instead, his work was partly influenced by the thoughts of Neo-Platonism, particularly by the works of Porphyry and Plotinus. The Confessions contains three main parts: a) Books I to IX include ‘memory of past failings and God’s forbearance and assistance’, b) Book X contains the present state of his soul while writing the Confessions, and c) Books XI to XIII involve his outlook on the ultimate meaning of life in the Divine plan for creation. The last part includes the three aspects of time - memory, present attention and expectation. Augustine’s Confessions is a reminder for the author and others of the beginning of creation as well as of how God has helped him. The relationship between time and eternity is analyzed in Book XI in Confessions in accordance with the existence of the Supreme entity called God. While explaining the notion of time, Augustine argues that with the course of time, things undergo motion and changes leaving an impression in the mind. It is this impression that we measure when we measure time. Therefore, time exists as tending toward non-existence. What exists is the present time. Augustine further divides the ‘present’ time into three categories: a) the present of things past (memory), b) the present of things present (sight or attention), and c) the present of things future (expectation). When we think of the impression in mind, the mind looks forward to things, looks at things, and looks back upon things. So we look at those impressions constantly and enduringly. Therefore, time can also be conceived as an extension of the mind itself. Because, it is the mind that perceive time differently in accordance with various things. Books XII and XIII further deals with the topic more extensively. Here, Augustine discusses the concept of creation with regard to that of time. God is the creator of this world, which is created out of a formless matter. This formless matter was created simultaneously with the things contained in it. In other words, God gave form to this formless matter without any interval of form or time. In this context, Augustine distinguishes various senses of priority. Priority in eternity: The existence of God is prior to every creation. Because, God is the creator of all things. Priority in time: Every object undergoes creation and development according to the plan of creation. Therefore, the flower exists before the fruit. Priority in choice: Things can be chosen on the basis of specific choices and not according to the time of its creation. Therefore, the fruit is chosen before the flower. Priority in origin: The origin of the objects can always be traced back. Therefore, the sound is prior to the tune. Augustine, on the basis of these senses of priority, makes a clear and logical statement that the formless matter is prior to the things made of it without any interval of time. So time can also be conceived as a non-existent entity. Further, as time can be perceived in reality in terms of the three present times, that is, memory, sight and expectation, the notion of time can be considered as both existent as well as non-existent entity. The non-existent denotation of time refers to the concept of eternity. Whereas its existent property is divided into three present times - past, present and future. As all these three spans of time can be realized through our understanding of the term in the mind, therefore, time can also be considered as an extension of the mind itself. Reference Cahn, Steven M. Classics of Western Philosophy. 6th ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2002. Read More