Ecologically Sustainable Economic Development - Essay Example

What is meant by the term ‘sustainable development’? How has this concept contributed to the amelioration of environmental degradation? Sustainable development Sustainable development or ecologically sustainable economic development has many components to it (Ougolnitsky, 2009, p. 428). This term started spreading after the 1987 United Nations report “Our common future”. Sustainable development was first mentioned in the Bruntland Report or the World Commission on Environment and Development. Here it is defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Willers, 1994, p 1146). Sustainability development vouches for the loss of biodiversity and the continued worsening of ecosystems. Generally speaking, human needs must be met and economic growth must be nurtured keeping intact the available natural resources and environmental integrity (Willers, 1994, p. 1147). Requirements of both ecological balance and economical development must be satisfied. These conditions would be lasting forever or for a very long period. Hierarchial management of sustainable development is necessary and it must be able to result in the essential performance of main requirements, satisfying the various interests. It is essential to overcome the environmental pollution and its effect in aggravating the ecological situation which is a global problem (Ougolnitsky, 2009, p. 428). The concept of hierarchial controlled dynamic management has the chances of providing better decisions. The three constituents of hierarchial management are the administrative, economic and psychological. Private interests of organizations, aiming at short term interests, collide with the objective strategies of the global system (Ougolnitsky, 2009, p. 429). . This contrast in ideas needs to be solved by the hierarchial management which had better be a two tier management. The individual interests should be coordinated into a common group of interests with common objectives. Different methods are employed in the management: compulsion, impulsion and conviction (Ougolnitsky, 2009, p. 431). Compulsion is when a participant is forced to undertake or accept a common interest or objective. Impulsion is when the participant is offered the opportunities or economically advantageous background to promote the common interests. Both levels have common interests and both are equally committed in conviction. Compulsion is an inefficient method to produce a combined effort. Voluntary cooperation is evident in conviction which is actually a psychological approach and the best in the sustainable development (Ougolnitsky, 2009, p. 432). The use of incentives and even compulsion may have to be adopted on occasion. The Political Ecology of Sustainable development. The various ecological changes like global warming, degradation of the forest, erosion of soil, biological simplification, increasing pollution of land, water and air are all manageable at political level, at the local, national and international levels (Bryant, 1991, p. 164). Developments which contribute to ecological degradation like dams and industries provide great power to the political forces and business houses which make them reluctant to any changes which really make sustainable development. If they do not tinker but attempt to make some changes, effective policy change may be hampered by other forces. Political ecology has three research areas, in the environmental impacts of the state and policies, interstate relationship and global capitalism. This points to the growing social and ecological influence of national and transnational forces (Bryant, 1991, p. 165). Research can also be made into the local specific aspects of environmental change. Poor peasants and urban dwellers may find offence in the environmental changes planned. A third research area would be into the effects of change on the socio economic and political relationships (Bryant, 1991, p. 165). Policy makers are attempting to assess the impact of their policies on economic, environmental and social concerns (Boulanger, 2005, p. 337). It requires a special kind of decision making. Sustainable issues develop when human beings cannot bear the cost of production and consumption with degradation. Pervasive uncertainties also create problems. The longer that a planned policy lasts, the more the unexpected impact and the more the cost-benefit balance and the greater the risk (Boulanger, 2005, p. 339). In all sustainable issues, conflicts exist between human practices and natural processes. Environmental security Environmental security has become a great issue of governments and their policies as several factors are threatening stability (Belluck, 2007, p.4). The world population will be shooting up from 6.1 billion in 2000 to 7.2 billion in 2007. Challenges in water scarcity and allocation would be troubling some nations alongside the depletion of ground water. Environmental problems are expected to expand. Globalisation is going to be a rocky ride with financial volatility and unexpected anxiety about economic divides. Environmental degradation is an associated major problem. Arable land is being degraded due to the vastly increasing population and the inappropriate waste disposal. Tropical forests are being lost due to improper policies on the cutting of trees. Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing (Belluk, 2007, p. 4). Biological species are being lost and many are on the verge of extinction. Rapid urbanization is another problem. Environmental pollution has created serious issues of the quality of urban air and water. Global warming is causing glacier ice melt backs. The sea level is rising and storm frequency has increased. The major elements in environmental security are essentially two. Human life and the moral value of the environment must be upheld by repairing the damage done and damage must be prevented to the environment from attacks and other human abuse (Belluck, 2007, p. 4). Till date no consensus has been reached for a single definition for environmental security. It has been spoken of as the ability of a nation to control environmental-related asset scarcity, risks, tensions and conflicts (Chalecki, Pacific Institute). Case studies can predict future conflicts associated with environmental degradation (Belluck, 2007, p.4). Environmental security has also been described as the policies and actions which lead to safety from dangers caused due to natural or human-made problems of ignorance, neglect, mismanagement or design inside or outside the country (Cheremisinoff, 2002). Three concepts arise from all the definitions: the security of the environment, societal instability and conflicts. Environmental changes must be repaired for the sake of environmental security. Ensuring environmental security means “guarding against environmental degradation in order to preserve or protect human, material, and natural resources at scales ranging from global to local”(Belluck, 2007, p. 12). Critical infrastructure is associated with environmental security. The modern society actually depends on the critical infrastructure which constitutes a complex system. Belluck says that it includes the “man-made structures constructed and maintained to assure human health, environmental protection, transportation networks, water supplies, clean air, food supplies and other critical elements necessary to maintain economic and national security”. The aim is obviously to ameliorate environmental degradation. The process also constitutes the study of chemical releases, risk assessment of the dangers of pollution and risk management. A flexible risk acceptability criteria must be drawn up to match the critical infrastructure, taking into consideration a transparent risk management process which suits the risk assessment (Belluck, 2007, p. 12). Global change Climate change is occurring due to various natural processes like a variation in solar radiation, meteorite impacts and volcanic eruptions (Wrachien, 2006, p. 356). The resulting global warming has created changes in climates. The climate has also been affected by human activities resorting to new technologies for a better life. This climate forcing has resulted in greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, urbanization, changing land use and agricultural practices (Wrachien, 2006, p. 356). This global warming has created changes in the evotranspiration rate, intensity and frequency of precipitation, river flows, soil moisture and groundwater recharge. Global change research has many issues within its purview (Petschel-Held, 1999, p. 295). One problem is the physico-chemical changes in the atmosphere. Soil degradation, loss of biodiversity by the reduction of the natural ecosystems by area and quality, pollution of freshwater and coastal zones added to the woes of this planet. Pests and disease vectors were undergoing a global dissemination. Transboundary migration into ill-managed mega cities, population growth and overcrowding worsened the situation by rank imbalance of pollution. Income, sanitation, education and dignity were becoming more disparate among the world communities (Petschel-Held, 1999, p. 295). Global change (GC) is possible by decomposing the intricate dynamics of GC into syndromes or patterns of civilization-nature interactions. The crises can be resolved through sustainable development. Possible solutions have been suggested by Petschel-Held. Soils that regenerate completely with an equilibrium struck between natural resources and socio-economic conditions could be a method to begin sustainable development. Soil degradation should not lead to poverty. The fourth step could be a social recuperation. Overuse of natural environment should not cause a lack of food for people. Combating poverty is a multidimensional task. Social policy guides us with tools. A broader concept will be obtained by the experiences of failure in developing countries (Petschel-Held, 1999, p. 311). Poor people could be victims and actors in resource degradation. Combating poverty empowers the poor. The focus is not to raise incomes but to create situations which would convert assets into income. Policies which could help them are land reform and securing land tenure rights, reform of agricultural price structure, reduction of tax load upon rural population, empowerment of rural population by more participation, democratization, better regional governance, improving public health (sanitation, hospitals, vaccination, educational work (Petschel-Held, 1999, p. 311). Policies which provide technical equipment, techniques and skills could lead to soil improvement. They could be no-tillage farming, agroforestry, contour ploughing or improvement of the farmer’s knowledge and transfer of technical know-how. Globalisation occupies a higher priority position than sustainable development (Cracknell, 2009, p. 445). It brings prosperity to some nations while impoverishing others. It also remains the main process behind the development of nature and society considering global population dynamics. Globalisation is being identified as Americanism. People are forgetting their own cultures. The interests of developed countries are promoted by organizations like the International Chamber of Commerce, International Organization of Employers, Centre for Environmental Diplomacy and the Bretton Woods Committee (Cracknell, 2009, p. 446). The theory of neoliberal globalization has been put forward by the reformists of global social democracy. Sustainable development happens to be one among the many approaches to the dynamics of globalization. Integration of the objectives of “environmental protection and promotion of economic growth and social equity” constitute sustainable development of which innovation is also an essential component. A biocybernetic system connects all living beings in the biosphere by organising the regulation of energy fluxes and cycles of substances. These occur spontaneously where the oceans are concerned (Cracknell, 2009, p. 448). Incidentally the oceans provide 1% of resources consumed by man. Distributed productivity regulates land biogeocenosis. These are controlled by Man and his scientific and technical progress. The biosphere is a fully organized complicated hierarchial system on which human life completely depends upon. Biospherical ecological systems have led to the various disciplines of the Geographical Information Systems (GIS), global modeling, Geoinformation Monitoring Systems (GIMS), survival theory and systemology. There is still a limitation to the study of natural subsystems with diverse spatio-temporal issues (Cracknell, 2009, p. 448). An interdisciplinary science between GIS, global modeling and GIMS export systems along with nature protection activity is being sought for. Ecoinformatics is a the term for this interdisciplinary development Ecoinformatics. Several conferences were organised towards the end of the twentieth century for discussing the problems of ecoinformatics and the Earth. Environmental protection and how to organize global ecological monitoring have been the hot topics of discussion. A new approach that has been suggested is the production of a complex information system which describes biospheric and climatic processes and anthropogenic activity (Cracknell, 2009, p. 449). The main idea is to create a universal and uniform model with thematic content which gives information on the interaction of natural and anthropogenic processes. The most complicated part is the study of social relationships depending on the environmental state. The task for modeling social relationships by “working out optimal behavioral policies at government level” is even more difficult (Cracknell, 2009, p. 449). Ecoinformatics could suggest a way. Biocomplexity The National Science Foundation produced a program for plans between 2001-2005 which was named “Biocomplexity”. “Biocomplexity is a derivative of biological, social, physical and chemical and behavioural interactions of environmental sub-systems, including living organisms and the global population” ((Cracknell, 2009, p. 449). It is connected to the rules that are found in the biosphere like those of the different eco-systems ad natural economic systems both local and global. Stability and the vitality of ecosystems are studied but it is not easy as the objects of study like the human factor is complicated due to the growing stress factors in the environment. It is difficult to select criteria that would form the basis of conclusions, expert examination and recommendations. The evolution of a set of criteria will influence the accuracy of existing and planned productivity. The credibility of the global geoinformation monitoring data will also be influenced (Cracknell, 2009, p. 450). Biocomplexity allows study of the complex interactions between the living and nonliving elements of the environment. The prospects of improved living standards are what society expects. However our knowledge of current science does not provide an answer to this. Key social and environmental problems can be solved with the contributions of biocomplexity. This could soon be used as an informative indicator for normalized difference vegetation index and leaf area index (Cracknell, 2009, p. 463) The experience of the Mediterranean environment In the early 1970s soil degradation and desertification were not problems in the Mediterranean (Wrachien , 2006, p. 353). Traditional agricultural systems were relied upon to keep things in check. Priority was not provided for research and projects for soil erosion and conservation. Farm machinery and the role of organic matter were given more significance. Twenty years later, agriculture in the sloping land was found to be a major cause of soil degradation. Increasing cultivations to maximize profit due to the technological revolution was one cause. Hydrological phenomena caused detrimental and permanent changes in the landscape, reduced soil fertility and enhanced the soil degradation. Demands for soil conservation was not responded to due to poor research (Wrachien, 2006, p. 353). “Salinization, acidification, contamination, compression, surface sealing, desertification, damage to the organisms in the soil and negative impacts on human beings” were the other problems of the area (p. 369). Desertification was expected due to decrease in rainfall. Funded projects have been planned by the European Community for reducing the drought and assessing land degradation and desertification. A Strategic Action Plan for implementation without overlapping or duplication is likely to achieve the most benefit (Wrachien, 2006, p. 369). Past policies are to be discarded. Land, water use and management has been made participatory, comprehensive and sustainable by current environmental standards. Objectives, goals, policies and regulations have been made with realities, traditions and natural resource management strategies. The United Nations Environmental program is creating a common method for erosion mapping. The European Filed Experiment aims to understand erosion and degradation to model desertification (Wrachien, 2006, p. 367). Degradation in China The Shiyang River basin provided the highest utilization of water and land resources among the inland rivers of northwestern China (Li, 2007, p. 947). Using new techniques like GIS and the landscape structure analysis program FRAGSTATS, the lower areas of the river were studied. It was found that there was a reduction in the patch number of farmland and desert decreased but patch area increased. Reclamation and desertification in the area were serious problems. Farmland and desert area enlarged at the expense of woodland and grassland. Surface water decreased while exploitation of ground water increased. Agricultural crops were mostly salinity-enduring like cotton (Li, 2007, p. 947). Ecological reconstruction was planned. The first suggestion was to educate farmers to readjust the planting structure . They were to reduce the cultivation for grain crops and cash crops and increase green fodder and green manure crops. Animal husbandry was to be increased (Li, 2007, p. 953). Use-efficiency of water was to be ensured. Wells were to be well built to prevent the seepage of fresh water into the canals. Newer irrigation systems were to conserve water. Ground water pumpage was to be strictly controlled. Resettlement of population had been suggested to reduce population pressure. Rational exploitation of brackish water and water diversion inn the basin had been recommended. Restoring the ecosystem was another useful recommendation (Li, 2007, p. 956). References: Belluck, D.A. et al. (2007). “Environmental security, critical infrastructure and risk assessment”. in Environmental Security in Harbors and Coastal Areas, (eds.) Linkov, I., Published by Springer, Netherlands Boulanger, P.-M. and Brechet, T. (2005). “Models for policy-making in sustainable development: The state of the art and perspectives for research”. Ecological Economics 55 (2005) 337– 350, ScienceDirect Bryant, R.L. 1991 The political ecology of sustainable development. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters, Vol. 1 No. 6 Nov. 1991. pg. 164-166. Blackwell publishing URL http://www.jstor.org/stable/2997621 Chalecki, E. L. No Date. Environmental Security: A Case Study of Climate Change. Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. http://www.pacinst.org/ environment_and_security/env_security_and_climate_change.pdf. Cheremisinoff, N.P. 2002. Environmental Security: The Need for International Policies. Pollution Engineering. 5/1/2002. http://www.pollutionengineering.com/CDA/ ArticleInformation/features/BNP__Features__Item/0,6649,103962,00.html. Cracknell, A.P. et al. (2009). “Sustainable development problems in the context of global ecoinformatics Chapter 17 in Global Climatology and Ecodynamics, (Eds.), Arthur P.Cracknell et al. Springer Berlin, Heidelberg and New York and Praxis Publishing, 2009 of UK. Printed in and Germany Li, X. et al. (2007). “Evaluation of landscape changes and ecological degradation by GIS in arid regions: a case study of the terminal oasis of the Shiyang River, northwest China”. Environ Geol (2007) 52:947–956 DOI 10.1007/s00254-006-0536-2 Springer-Verlag 2006 Ougolnitsky, G.A. and Usov, A.B. (2009.) Problems of the Sustainable development of ecologic-economic systems Chapter 16 in Global Climatology and Eco dynamics, (eds.) Arthur P.Cracknell et al. Springer Berlin, Heidelberg and New York and Praxis Publishing, 2009 of UK., Printed in and Germany Petschel-Held, G. (1999). “Syndromes of Global Change: a qualitative modelling approach to assist global environmental management”. 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