Gender Differences in Smoking Cessation Success - Essay Example

Gender Differences in Smoking Cessation Success Roll No: Teacher: 15th December 2008 Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Gender Differences in Smoking Cessation Success 3 Introduction 3 Methodology 4 Findings 6 Conclusion 9 References 10 Gender Differences in Smoking Cessation Success Introduction Cigarette smoking is widespread and the single most preventable cause of disease and deaths the world over. (Kaplan, Sallis, & Patterson 1993). The NHS Information Centre for Health and Social Care in 2008 published the alarming statistic that one in every six adults aged 35 and over died due to smoking. More alarming was that 6 percent (35 years and over) from the general admissions to hospital (10 million) were tobacco-related (NHS 2008). However, it has also been observed that the prevalence of smoking has reduced, with smokers being more and more socially marginalized in recent years (Schroeder 2008). Studies show that women are at a higher risk of smoking-related diseases, including lung cancer (Kure et al. 1996; Dally et al. 2003). Research has also shown that cessation among women is more difficult compared to their male counterparts (Perkins 2001; Swan, Ward, Carmelli & Jack 1993; Green, Lynn, & Montgomery 2006; 2008). Possible reasons for gender differences have been suggested by researchers to include women’s concern about weight gain, and increase in negative mood during cessation attempts and a greater need for social support from family and peers (Jensvold, Hamilton, & Halbreich 1996; Hatsukami, Skoog, Allen, & Bliss 1995; Pierce, Lee, & Gilpin 1994; Grunberg, Winders, & Wewers 1991). Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that some studies have failed to identify any significant gender differences in cessation success (Cinciripini et al. 1995; Fortmann & Killen 1995: Killen, Fortmann, Newman, & Varady 1990). In light of these contradictory findings my literature review will focus on the evidence both for and against gender differences in the cessation of smoking in order to gain an insight into the nature of any variations in cessation success. This paper has a whole focuses on the gender differences in smoking cessation success. This paper is divided into executive summary, introduction, methodology, literature review and conclusion. Methodology The methodology adopted for the research is qualitative one in which, a detailed literature review will be given to analyze the gender differences in smoking cessation success. For this purpose, a number of books, articles and journals are consulted for collection of suitable information for the review. Some of the writings are left out because of their inadequacy according to the need of the review while others are employed for writing a detailed literature review. “Current Concept in Adolescent Smoking” by Pletcher and Schwarz is not included in the literature review because it is a general description about why people smoke or start smoking. This is not concerned with smoking cessation and is therefore an irrelevant source of information for this literature review. “Does Parental Smoking Cessation Discourage Adolescent Smoking?” by Farkas, Distefan, Choi, Gilpin and Pierce is also not included in the literature review because it is not relevant to the topic of the review. It discusses parents’ role in the smoking cessation of their adolescent children, which is not an area of my literature review due to which, it is not used. “Symptom–System Fit in Couples: Emotion Regulation When One or Both Partners Smoke” by Shoham, Butler, Rohrbaugh and Trost is also not included in the literature review because of its irrelevancy to the topic of the literature review. This article discusses the closeness that is between two smokers who are related to each and other. Therefore, it is quite clear that it is irrelevant to the literature review. “The Neurobiology of Tobacco Dependence: A Commentary” by Balfour is also not included in the literature review as this concentrates on neurobiology in general, and does not look at gender differences in quitting/cessation. It is not included in the review because of its irrelevancy to the topic. A total of nineteen sources are employed for writing the literature review. “Are there gender differences in smoking cessation, with and without bupropion? Pooled- and meta-analyses of clinical trials of Bupropion SR” is a research report written by Scharf and Shiffman in which they analyze that women have less success in quitting smoking as compared to men. This study is useful for the literature review due to which, it is included in the paper. “Adolescent Reasons for Quitting Smoking: Initial Psychometric Evaluation” by Myers and MacPherson is a study that informs that adolescents have different reasons for quitting smoking and also that many adolescents have intentions for the cessation. This study comes up with results of motives given by various adolescents for smoking cessation. This study was also useful for the literature review due to which, it was included. “Smoking characteristics and saliva cotinine levels in Taiwanese smokers: gender differences” by Huang, Lin and Yang is included in the literature review as it was relevant to the study. It analyzes about nicotine dependence as a key barrier to cessation. This study also informs about gender differences in terms of smoking characteristics and biochemical marker. “Do Men Outperform Women in Smoking Cessation Trials? Maybe, But Not by Much” by Killen, Fortmann, Varady and Kraemer was also found relevant for the literature review because it considered gender differences in terms of smoking cessation trails. This study analyzed the impact of gender differences in terms of smoking cessation successful. “Gender and Smoking Behavior in A Worksite Smoking Cessation Program” by Stockton, Mcmahon and Jason is a study that looks at the gender differences in terms of quitting smoking. In terms of usage of cigarette, men and women reported different responses and for them to quit smoking is also a different situation. It was relevant for the literature review. “Gender and weight concerns in adolescent smokers” by Cavallo, Duhig, Mckee and Krishnan-Sarin, “Gender Differences In The Outcome Of An Unaided Smoking Cessation Attempt” by Ward, Klesges, Zbikowski, Bliss and Garvey, “Gender-Related Differences in Hypnosis-Based Treatments for Smoking: A Follow-up Meta-Analysis” by Green, Lynn and Montgomery, “Predictors of Initial Smoking Cessation and Relapse Through the First 2 Years of the Lung Health Study” by Nides, Gonzalous, Tashkin, Rakos, Murray, Bjornson-Benson, Lindgren and Connet, “Quitting Smoking in the United States in 1986” by Hatziandreu, Pierce, Lejkopoulou, Fiore, Mills, Novotny, Giovino and Davis, “Smokers sex and the effects of tobacco cigarettes: subject-rated and physiological measures” by Eissenberg, Adams, Riggins and Likness, “Smoking cessation among Chinese young smokers: Does gender and age difference matters and what are the predictors?” by Abdullah, Lam, Chan and Hedley, “Smoking Cessation during Pregnancy and Relapse after Childbirth: The Impact of the Grandmother’s Smoking Status” by Lemola and Grob, “Smoking Cessation in Women” by Perkins, “Statistics on Smoking: England 2008” by NHS, “Message framing for smoking cessation: The interaction of risk perceptions and gender” by Toll, Salovey, O’Malley, Mazure, Latimer and McKee and “What’s new in Nicotine & Tobacco Research?” by Hebert, all were found useful for the literature review. Findings Smoking Cessation is not an easy task for the smokers as they are so much used to the habit of smoking that it appears almost impossible for them for quit smoking. Women are regarded as facing much more problems than men in terms of cessation success (Scharf and Shiffman 2004; Perkins 2001; Stockton, et. al 2000; Cavallo, et. al 2006). People are so much dependent on nicotine that is an essential constituent of cigarettes that they are unable to take the step of cessation. Patients who are aware that smoking is a reason for their being ill show much more interest towards quitting this habit to become healthy again (Hebert 2008). The statistics obtained about men and women making use of cigarettes are divided into three groups which are heavy smokers, moderate smokers and light smokers and these statistics are taken from the website of NHS. This statistics takes into consideration the men and women of sixteen years or above sixteen. The results indicate that men are more heavy smokers than women; the moderate smokers are more women and fewer men while a similar number of men and women are light smokers according to the statistics (NHS 2008). There has been reduction in the rate of smoking in America but still the society is not smoke free because many individuals whether they are man or women are unable to quit smoking because of their overly dependency on nicotine (Hatziandreu, et. al 1990). There have been attempts of smoking cessation but only a fewer amount of attempts get success. It has been reported that the people with the older age are able to quit smoking more successfully than the youngsters (Hatziandreu, et. al 1990). People who are above sixty five years or sixty five plus years are considered as most successful while the people of younger ages are mostly unsuccessful in smoke cessation (Hatziandreu, et. al 1990). Perkins reports in his article that women are at a higher risk of diseases because of smoking and also indicates that women face more problems in being successful in smoking cessation (2001). Women do not have to take care of themselves only but in case of being pregnant; they are also responsible for their unborn children. It is reported that in pregnancy, smoking is very harmful for the child (Perkins 2001). The smoking habit is not only harmful for the child but the mother also and men are not at such risk ever. It is also informed by Perkins that women have a poorer record in terms of smoking cessation. For pregnant women, medications for smoking cessation are not recommended as to safeguard the foetus from any harm. Pregnant women are recommended to quit smoking without any medication (Perkins 2001). Due to smoking, women have to undergo diseases such as lung cancer, breast cancer and many more and in trying to quit smoking, there are many other problems such as depression, weight gain and others, which are faced by women (Stockton, et. al 2000; Cavallo, et. al 2006; Perkins 2001; Toll, et. al 2008). Women are considered to be more in number who have withdrawn from smoking cessation attempts as compared to men and the reason for this fact is researched to be the sensitiveness of women. It is further reported that physiologically women are like men but subjectively, they are somehow different (Eissenberg, et. al 1999). Women are reported to have higher metabolism rate for nicotine and lower salivary level of cotinine due to which, they are more dependent on nicotine as compared to men. Women are considered to be at much risk in association to become nicotine dependent as compared to men because of their family oriented. For medications related to smoking cessation, gender needs to be considered because of the biological differences found in women and men (Huang, Lin and Yang 2007). Women show a lower rate of confidence for smoking cessation with success, they are more worried about their being ill because of smoking, they effort greatly for cessation and in the absence of any medication or program, they do not show any motivation to quit smoking (Stockton, et. al 2000; Cavallo, et. al 2006; Perkins 2001). Women are also in need of social support for the attempt to quit smoking. Women’s behaviour and men’s behaviour in relation to smoking cessation success is quite different. Smoking is considered as a severe problem by women and they consider themselves overly dependent on it. While trying to quit smoking, they are really worried about the problems that are caused because of smoking cessation. Women also feel a lot of social pressure while smoking. According to researchers, women report about more problems while attempting to quit smoking as compared to men (Stockton, et. al 2000; Cavallo, et. al 2006; Perkins 2001; Toll, et. al 2008). For them, smoking cessation is more problematic as compared to men. During pregnancy, women are stopped to take any medication related to smoking cessation because of any probable harm to the foetus (Lamola and Grob 2007). Women also show no desire to stop smoking if they are not encouraged towards it while on the other hand, they are also worried about their problem as a smoker. There are also such studies which indicate towards a non-gendered approach towards smoking as a problem. The researchers indicated that the study conducted by them came up with no such results that were convincing in terms of a gender difference based on smoking cessation. Men and women do not differ much in their clinical trials for treatment in terms of smoking cessation. According to them, the quitting rate of smokers whether male or female is somehow equal and the problems that are reported by women are also faced by men but they try to avoid them in place of reporting them (Abdullah, et.al 2003). Conclusion From the literature review, it is quite evident that women are considered different as compared to men in terms of their attempt for quitting smoking. Mostly researchers are of the opinion that women face more difficulties in smoking cessation as compared to men. The problems reported by women in the process of smoking cessation are depression and weight gain while men have not reported such problems. On one hand, researchers consider and also prove that gender differences matter a lot in smoking cessation success while on the other hand, researchers have proved that gender does not make a difference in smoking cessation success. The overall literature review proves that the researchers indicating a gender difference in smoking cessation success are quite dominating because most of the researches indicate towards a difference in terms of women role and men role for the procedure of smoking cessation. Women are much more careful about their health and diseases that are caused by smoking but they show a recessive desire towards quitting smoking. Researchers also have proved that women are more dependent on smoking as compared to men. During pregnancy, women are not allowed to make use of anti-smoking medicines or medicines that are adopted for quitting smoking. At that juncture, women are required to quit smoking on their own as the medications for smoking cessation can be harmful for the mother and her child. Because of smoking problem, women also suffer from diseases such as lung cancer and breast cancer while men on the other hand, go through lung cancer only. 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